I am not afraid of dying for the love of God; my only fear is to forget the love of God.

Rabi’a al-Adawiyya (714-801 CE)

The Islamic Golden Age (8th to 13th centuries) was a period of unprecedented knowledge production and cultural flourishing. Scholars from all corners of the Muslim world contributed to advancements in science, philosophy, and the arts, creating a thriving intellectual atmosphere. Women, often overshadowed in historical records, also played key roles during this time. Despite living in a society that placed certain limitations on their public lives, many women were able to pursue knowledge, becoming teachers, writers, poets, and scientists.

This article seeks to uncover the hidden narratives of these remarkable women, highlighting their vital contributions to the Islamic Golden Age.

Women’s Education and Scholarship in Medieval Islam

From the early days of Islam, seeking knowledge was encouraged for both men and women. The Qur’an places a strong emphasis on education, stating in Surah Al-‘Alaq (96:1): “Read in the name of your Lord who created.” The Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) also emphasized the importance of knowledge for all, famously stating, “Seeking knowledge is obligatory for every Muslim.” This religious foundation created a culture that valued learning, where many women felt encouraged to pursue education. Women like Aisha bint Abi Bakr, one of the Prophet’s wives, became renowned scholars of hadith and Islamic law, exemplifying how early Islam provided an avenue for women to contribute intellectually.

Notable patrons, including Zubaidah bint Ja’far (زبيدة بنت جعفر) (766-831 CE), wife of Harun al-Rashid, sponsored educational initiatives and supported women scholars. These efforts created opportunities for women to engage in intellectual pursuits.

Notable Learning Centers: Key intellectual centers during the Islamic Golden Age, such as Baghdad, Cordoba, and Cairo, served as vibrant hubs for scholars, including women. In Baghdad, the House of Wisdom was a premier research center where scholars from different cultures worked together, and women were involved in scholarly exchanges. Cordoba in Islamic Spain (Al-Andalus) was known for its libraries and academic institutions, where women engaged in teaching, studying, and the arts. In Cairo, the Al-Azhar University and its associated institutions also provided opportunities for women to engage in learning, particularly in religious sciences.

Female Scholars in the Islamic Golden Age across Various Fields 

Note:

To clarify, we use “d.” to indicate the year an individual died. When exact dates are scarce, century approximations are used to provide context.

Theology and Jurisprudence (Fiqh)

Women scholars were integral to the development of Islamic theology and jurisprudence, particularly in the transmission of hadith (sayings and actions of the Prophet Muhammad) and the interpretation of Islamic law (fiqh). They held esteemed positions as teachers and transmitters of religious knowledge, shaping Islamic legal and theological thought.

Umm al-Darda (ام الدرداء) (d. 809 CE):

A distinguished hadith scholar from Damascus, Umm al-Darda was highly respected for her expertise in Islamic theology and law. Unusually, for her time, she taught both men and women in public, including in the famous Umayyad Mosque of Damascus. She was known for her sharp intellect and deep knowledge, becoming a source of inspiration for both her contemporaries and later generations.

Fatima bint Muhammad al-Fihri (فاطمة بنت محمد الفهري) (d. 880 CE):

Fatimah al-Fihri is perhaps best known for founding Al-Qarawiyyin University (جامعہ القروین) in Fez, Morocco, in 859 CE, making it one of the oldest continually operating universities in the world. The institution became a renowned center for Islamic studies, attracting scholars from all over the Muslim world and Europe. It played a pivotal role in the intellectual development of the Islamic Golden Age and continues to function as a leading academic institution to this day.

Al-Qarawiyyin was not only a place for religious education but also a hub for scientific, medical, and philosophical discourse, thanks to Fatimah’s foresight in promoting education for both men and women. Her legacy lives on in the thousands of scholars who passed through the university’s doors and contributed to the development of knowledge across various fields.

Karima al-Marwaziyya (كريمة المروازية) (d. 1070 CE):

An influential hadith scholar from Central Asia, Karima was known for her precise knowledge of hadith. She transmitted Sahih al-Bukhari, one of the most trusted hadith compilations, and her version became a primary source for many future scholars. Her contribution solidified the integrity of hadith transmission.

Literature and Poetry

Women during the Islamic Golden Age were not only consumers of literary culture but also creators who enriched Islamic civilization through their poetry and writings. Their works often reflected their intellectual rigor and provided commentary on their societal and spiritual experiences.

Wallada bint al-Mustakfi (ولادة بنت المستكفي) (d. 1091 CE):

A celebrated poetess from Cordoba, Wallada was known for her independent spirit and literary prowess. She held literary salons where intellectuals gathered to exchange ideas, and her poetry reflected both her personal autonomy and the vibrant cultural life of Andalusia. Wallada’s contribution to poetry and culture left a lasting impression on the intellectual scene of Cordoba.

Rabi’a al-Adawiyya (رابعة العدوية) (d. 801 CE):

A pioneer of Sufi mysticism, Rabi’a’s poetic expressions of divine love reshaped the way Islamic spirituality was understood. Her verses focused on unconditional love for God, transcending material desires. Rabi’a’s legacy continues to inspire Sufi thought, with her poetry influencing Islamic literature and philosophy.

Fakhra bint Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani (فخر بنت أبي الفرج الإسفہاني) (d. 11th century CE):

Fakhra was a prominent poet and scholar whose literary contributions earned recognition in the medieval Islamic world. Her poetry, which explored themes of love, spirituality, and intellectual inquiry, resonated within the cultural circles of her time, demonstrating the intellectual vitality of women in medieval Islam.

Science and Medicine

Women were active participants in scientific and medical advancements during the Islamic Golden Age. Some women became known for their roles in medicine, while others contributed to scientific fields like astronomy and engineering.

Fatima al-Fihri (d. 880 CE):

In addition to her contributions to theology, Fatima al-Fihri’s establishment of Al-Qarawiyyin University created an environment that promoted the study of science and medicine. Scholars in these fields found a welcoming intellectual environment under her patronage, and the university went on to produce many prominent scientists.

Maryam al-Ijliyah (مریم الاجلیہ) (d. 10th century CE):

A pioneering engineer and astronomer from Aleppo, Maryam al-Ijliyah was known for her expertise in crafting astrolabes, devices used for navigation and astronomy. Her work was instrumental in advancing the field of astronomy, and she earned great respect in the scientific community for her skill.

Zaynab al-Shahda (زینب الشہدا) (d. 1178 CE):

Zaynab al-Shahda, also known as “The Scholar of Baghdad,” was a calligrapher and a scholar trained in medicine. She provided medical advice and counsel to her community, blending her scholarly pursuits with practical knowledge. Her versatility highlights the multi-faceted roles women played in the intellectual life of the Islamic Golden Age.

Philosophy, Mathematics, and Astronomy

Women also contributed to intellectual disciplines such as mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy, fields that were crucial to the scientific achievements of the Islamic Golden Age.

Sutayta al-Mahamli (سُتَيتَة المَحْمَلِيَّة) (d. 10th century CE):

A mathematician and scholar from Baghdad, Sutayta was recognized for her ability to solve complex algebraic equations. Her work, alongside the contributions of other scholars in Baghdad, helped solidify the region’s reputation as a center for mathematical scholarship.

Lubna of Cordoba (لبنى القرطبية) (d. 984 CE):

An accomplished mathematician, philosopher, and poet, Lubna worked in the court of the Umayyads in Cordoba. She was involved in the mathematical and administrative affairs of the caliphate, and she managed the royal library, which housed vast amounts of knowledge.

Banū Mūsā Sisters  (9th century CE):

While their names are not well-documented, the Banū Mūsā Sisters worked alongside their brothers, contributing to the mathematical and scientific research for which the family became famous. Their collaborative efforts contributed to advancements in algebra and astronomy.

Historiography and Hadith Transmission

Women were critical in preserving and transmitting Islamic history and hadith, ensuring the authenticity and reliability of these sources for future generations.

Fatimah bint Sa’d al-Khayr (فاطمة بنت سعد الخير) (d. 1208 CE):

A prominent hadith scholar and teacher in Damascus, Fatimah bint Sa’d was known for her precision in hadith transmission. Her contributions helped to safeguard the integrity of Islamic knowledge, and her students went on to become leading scholars in their own right.

Zubaidah bint Jaafar (d. 831 CE):

Zubaidah, the wife of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, is remembered for her patronage of scholars and the arts, as well as for her remarkable public works projects. She played a crucial role in promoting education and scholarly activities by sponsoring the work of scholars and supporting the construction of infrastructure that facilitated intellectual exchange. Most notably, Zubaidah was responsible for the construction of a water canal and road system that connected Baghdad with Mecca, known as the “Zubaidah Road.”

Her investment in public works not only benefited pilgrims but also created an environment where knowledge could be exchanged more freely. By supporting such projects, Zubaidah contributed to the spread of Islamic knowledge and culture, ensuring that learning centers could thrive.

Challenges and Barriers

Societal Attitudes Towards Women’s Education

The societal norms during the Islamic Golden Age (8th-13th centuries) presented both opportunities and challenges for women’s education. While Islam, through its foundational texts—the Qur’an and Hadith—emphasized the importance of seeking knowledge for both men and women, cultural traditions and local customs often influenced how these teachings were applied.

In some regions, women were encouraged to pursue education, especially in religious scholarship, as demonstrated by the notable number of female Hadith scholars and teachers. However, in other areas, patriarchal social structures restricted women’s access to formal educational institutions. Despite these barriers, women found alternative ways to contribute to intellectual life.

Limited Access to Resources and Opportunities

Formal educational institutions like madrasas, universities, and public libraries were often male-dominated spaces. Women had limited access to these institutions, which constrained their ability to participate fully in scholarly and scientific activities. However, many women adapted to this by teaching in private settings, within their homes, or through informal gatherings known as halaqas (study circles).

Conclusion

Though often overlooked in historical accounts, women scholars of the Islamic Golden Age were instrumental in shaping the intellectual, cultural, and scientific landscape of their time. Their enduring influence continues to inspire contemporary discussions about women’s roles in academia and society at large. By rediscovering and celebrating their contributions, we pave the way for future generations to appreciate the richness of Islamic history and the significant impact women have had throughout it. As we move forward, it is essential to continue highlighting and amplifying the voices of women scholars, ensuring that their stories are preserved and honored in the tapestry of history.

Read also: Discoveries and Inventions of the House of Wisdom

References

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