Here is a comprehensive list of Muslim philosophers from all the Islamic world. This includes both notable and lesser-known figures, with their names in both English and Urdu:
- Al-Kindi (c. 801–873) – الکندی
- Hunayn ibn Ishaq (808–873) – حنین بن اسحاق
- Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912) – قسطا بن لوقا
- Sahl al-Tustari (818–896) – سہل التستری
- Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (850–934) – ابو زید البلخی
- Ibn Wahshiyya (c. 9th Century) – ابن وحشیہ
- Al-Razi (c. 864-935)– الرازى
- Al-Jahiz (776–868) – الجاحظ
- Ibn Masarra (883–931) – ابن مسرّة
- Al-Farabi (c. 872–950) – الفارابی
- Al-Masudi (c. 896–956) – المسعودی
- Al-Amiri (d. 992) – العامری
- Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani (971) – ابو یعقوب السجستانی
- Al-Mawardi (c. 972–1058) – الماوردی
- Al-Maʿarri (973–1058) – ابو العلاء المعری
- Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037) – ابن سینا
- Ebn Meskavayh (932–1030) – ابن مسکویہ
- Ibn Hazm (994–1064) – ابن حزم
- Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani (996–1021) – حامد الدین کرمانی
- Nasir Khusraw (1004–1088) – ناصر خسرو
- Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) – الغزالی
- Nizam al-Mulk Tusi (1018–1092) – نظام الملک طوسی
- Omar Khayyam (1048–1131) – عمر خیام
- Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) (c. 1085–1138) – ابن باجہ
- Shahrastani (1086–1153) – شہرستانی
- Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli (1104–1170) – ابن زفر الصقلی
- Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) (c. 1105–1185) – ابن طفیل
- Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198) – ابن رشد
- Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1154–1191) – شہاب الدین سہروردی
- Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209) – فخر الدین الرازی
- Ibn Arabi (1165–1240) – ابن عربی
- Najmuddin Kubra (1145–1220) – نجم الدین کبری
- Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) – نصیر الدین طوسی
- Rumi (1207–1273) – رومی
- Qotb al-Din Shirazi (1217–1311) – قطب الدین شیرازی
- Ibn Kammuna (d. 1284) – ابن كمونة
- Ibn Sabin (1236–1269) – ابن سبعین
- Allama Hilli (1250–1325) – علامہ حلی
- Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) – ابن خلدون
- Shams al-Din al-Fanari (1350–1431) – شمس الدین الفناری
- Sayyid Haydar Amuli (1319–1385) – سید حیدر امولی
- Al-Jurjani (1339–1413) – علی بن محمد الجرجانی
- Abdul Karim Jili (1366–1424) – عبد الکریم الجیلی
- Jami (1414–1492) – جامی
- Ahmad Zarruq (1442–1493) – احمد زرّوق
- Al-Taftazani (1322–1390) – سعد الدین التفتازانی
- Jalal al-Din al-Dawani (1426–1502) – جلال الدین الدوانی
- Molla Lutfi (d. 1495) – ملا لطفی
- Tashkopri-zade (1495–1561) – تاشکپری زادہ
- Mir Damad (c. 1570–1631) – میر داماد
- Mir Fendereski (1562–1640) – میر فندرسکی
- Mulla Sadra (1571–1641) – ملا صدرا
- Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624) – احمد سرہندی
- Al-Kashani (1548–1600) – الکاشانی
- Baha al-din al-Amili (Sheikh Bahai) (1547–1621) – بہاء الدین عاملی
- Mohammad Amin al-Astarabadi (d. 1627) – محمد امین الاسترآبادی
- Fayd al-Kashani (1619–1690) – فیض کاشانی
- Qazi Said Qumi (1633–1691) – قاضی سعید قمی
- Mohammad Baqir Majlisi (1627–1699) – محمد باقر مجلسی
- Shah Waliullah (1703–1762) – شاہ ولی اللہ
- Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsa’i (1753–1826) – شیخ احمد الاحسائی
- Rashid Rida (1865–1935) – محمد رشید رضا
- Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838–1897) – جمال الدین الافغانی
- Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) – محمد عبده
- Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898) – سر سید احمد خان
- Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928) – سید امیر علی
- Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938) – علامہ محمد اقبال
- Ali Abd al-Raziq (1885–1966) – علی عبد الرازق
- Ali Shariati (1933–1977) – علی شریعتی
- Abul Ala Maududi (1903–1979) – ابو الاعلی مودودی
- Malek Bennabi (1905–1973) – مالک بن نبی
- Ghulam Ahmed Perwez (1903–1985) – غلام احمد پرویز
- Henry Corbin (1903–1978) – ہنری کوربن
- Mohammad-Taqi Ja’fari (1923–1998) – محمد تقی جعفری
- Fazlur Rahman (1919–1988) – فضل الرحمن
- Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966) – سید قطب
- Muhammad Asad (1900–1992) – محمد اسد
- Tariq Ramadan (b. 1962) – طارق رمضان
- Hamza Yusuf (b. 1958) – حمزہ یوسف
- Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b. 1933) – سید حسین نصر
- Wael Hallaq (b. 1955) – وائل حلاق
- Ziauddin Sardar (b. 1951) – ضیاء الدین سردار
- Javed Ahmad Ghamidi (b. 1951) – جاوید احمد غامدی
- Abdolkarim Soroush (b. 1945) – عبدالکریم سروش
- Morteza Motahhari (1919–1979) – مرتضی مطہری
- Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr (1935–1980) – محمد باقر الصدر
- Ayatollah Khomeini (1902–1989) – آیت اللہ خمینی
- Abdel Rahman Badawi (1917–2002) – عبد الرحمن بدوی
- Muhammad Arkoun (1928–2010) – محمد ارکون
- Amina Wadud (b. 1952) – امینہ ودود
- Khaled Abou El Fadl (b. 1963) – خالد ابو الفضل
- Israr Ahmed (1932–2010) – اسرار احمد
- Mohammed Abed al-Jabri (1935–2010) – محمد عابد الجابری
- Abdollah Javadi-Amoli (b. 1933) – عبدالله جوادی آملی
- Sadiq Jalal al-Azm (1934–2016) – صادق جلال آز م
- Fatima Mernissi (1940–2015) – فاطمہ مرنسی
- Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi (1934–2021) – محمد تقی مصباح یزدی
- Gary Legenhausen (b. 1953) – گیری لیگن ہاؤزن
- Mostafa Malekian (b. 1956) – مصطفی ملکیان
- Insha-Allah Rahmati (b. 1966) – ان شاء اللہ رحمتی
- Shabbir Akhtar (1960–2023) – شبیر اختر
Detailed Explanation of the Muslim Philosophers
Islam has a rich history of thinkers, scholars, and philosophers. They explored not only religious ideas but also science, social sciences, Humanities, engineering, math, medicine, Astronomy, ethics, philosophy, and so on. These philosophers helped to preserve the knowledge of ancient civilizations like Greece, Rome, and India and also contributed significantly to what we know today.
Let us explore these brilliant minds.
Note:
D. Died
B. Born
C. Circa (means “approximately” or “around”)
Polymath. is an individual who has a wide range of expertise and knowledge across multiple disciplines or fields.
Mystic. is a person who seeks to understand and experience a deeper, spiritual reality that transcends the physical world.
Early Classical Philosophers
These early Muslim philosophers lived during a time of great intellectual growth in the Islamic world. They were influenced by Greek philosophy and made important contributions to science, logic, astronomy, etc.
Classical Era Philosophers
These Classical Era Philosophers primarily belong to the early Islamic Golden Age. They are known for the strong influence of Greek philosophy and the development of science, logic, metaphysics, etc:
1. Al-Kindi (c. 801–873)
Abu Yusuf Ya’qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi was an Arab philosopher and polymath. Al-Kindi is often referred to as the “Philosopher of the Arabs” or “father of Arabic philosophy” as he was the first Muslim philosopher. He was born in Kufa, Iraq, and spent much of his life in Baghdad. He served in the court of the Abbasid caliphs, where he became a central figure in the translation movement. Al-Kindi was well-versed in Greek philosophy and played a significant role in preserving and translating classical Greek works into Arabic.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Kindi integrated Greek philosophical concepts with Islamic thought. He particularly focused on Neoplatonism, which influenced his views on metaphysics, logic, and ethics. He believed that reason and philosophy could help explain and understand the natural world and the divine.
Major Works:
- On First Philosophy: Al-Kindi, here, attempted to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic theology.
- The Prologue to the Treatise on the Intellect: He Discussed the nature of the soul and intellect, drawn from both Islamic teachings and Greek philosophy.
Al-Kindi’s work opened the door for later Islamic philosophers, particularly in logic and metaphysics.
2. Hunayn ibn Ishaq (808–873)
Hunayn ibn Ishaq al-Ibadi was an Arab Nestorian Christian scholar, physician, and translator from Al-Hira (Iraq). Hunayn is considered one of the most important figures in the translation movement, translating numerous Greek philosophical, medical, and scientific texts into Arabic at the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. His works greatly contributed to the dissemination of Greek knowledge in the Islamic world.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Hunayn is known for his translation work, but his contributions have extended to the philosophy of medicine and logic. He was useful in preserving the works of Galen and Hippocrates in the Arabic-speaking world.
Major Works:
- Translation of Aristotle’s “Metaphysics” and “On the Soul”: Hunayn’s translations of Aristotle’s works influenced later Islamic philosophers and scholars.
- Kitab al-Masalik wal-Mamalik (The Book of Roads and Kingdoms): A work that combined geography and philosophy, translated Greek geographic knowledge into Arabic.
3. Qusta ibn Luqa (820–912)
Qusta ibn Luqa was a Christian physician, translator, mathematician, astronomer, and philosopher of the Islamic Golden Age. He was born in Baalbek (Now in Lebanon) around 820 CE during the Abbasid Caliphate. He was a prominent translator of the Abbasid Translation Movement, who translated Greek medical and philosophical texts into Arabic. Qusta played an important role in integrating Greek philosophy into Islamic thought.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Qusta ibn Luqa emphasized the relationship between philosophy, medicine, and ethics. He worked to reconcile Greek philosophy with Islamic thought. He also wrote original works on medicine, mathematics, and astronomy.
Major Works:
- Kitab al‐Madkhal ila ilm al‐nujum (Introduction to the science of astronomy and astrology)
- Risala Fi Tadbir Safar Al-ha (Medical Regime for the Pilgrims to Mecca)
- رسالة في الفرق بين الروح والنفس Treatise on the Difference Between Spirit and Soul.
4. Sahl al-Tustari (818–896)
Sahl ibn Abdullah al-Tustari was a prominent Islamic mystic and philosopher from Tustar (Iran). Sahl al-Tustari was known for his deep insights into Islamic theology, mysticism, and the nature of God. He was a key figure in the development of Sufism.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Sahl al-Tustari emphasized the mystical aspects of philosophy, particularly the idea that knowledge of God transcends reason. He combined Sufi mysticism with elements of philosophy to explain spiritual experiences and divine truths. He was one of the first philosophers to systematically integrate mysticism with Islamic thought.
Major Works:
- Tafsir al-Quran: A work interpreting the Quran from a mystical and philosophical perspective.
- Risala fi al-Hikma: A treatise on wisdom, bridging philosophy and Sufism.
5. Abu Zayd al-Balkhi (850–934)
Abu Zayd Ahmad ibn Sahl al-Balkhi was a Persian philosopher, psychologist, and physician from Balkh (Afghanistan). Abu Zayd al-Balkhi is often credited with laying the groundwork for the later development of psychology in the Islamic world. His work focused on mental health and the relationship between the body and the soul.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Balkhi’s primary philosophical contributions were in the field of psychology, where he introduced the concept of the mind-body relationship. He explored the effects of emotions and mental health on the physical body.
Major Works:
- Masalih al-Abdan wa al-Anfus (The Sustenance of Bodies and Souls): This work is considered one of the earliest texts on psychology. It is dealing with the balance between mental and physical health.
6. Ibn Wahshiyya (c. 9th Century)
Abu Bakr ibn Wahshiyya was an Arab scholar known for his works in alchemy, astrology, and mysticism. Ibn Wahshiyya’s writings represent the intersection of Islamic thought with older pre-Islamic traditions.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Wahshiyya believed in the power of ancient knowledge, particularly focusing on astrology and mysticism. He saw a deep connection between celestial bodies and earthly events, a common theme in early Islamic philosophy.
Major Works:
- Kitab al-Filaha al-Nabatiyya (The Book of Nabatean Agriculture): This text is a fusion of alchemical knowledge and practical agriculture.
7. Al-Razi (c. 864-935)
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi was a Persian polymath, physician, chemist, and philosopher from Ray (Iran). Al-Razi is considered one of the greatest medical minds in the Islamic Golden Age and a key figure in the development of chemistry.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Razi’s theory of the soul, explained in The Metaphysics, was derived from Islam, in which he explained how the soul finds its way to salvation and freedom. He defended his philosophical lifestyle, emphasizing that, rather than being self-indulgent, man should utilize his intellect and apply justice in his life.
Major Works:
- Kitab al-Hawi: A comprehensive medical encyclopedia that was used as a standard reference for centuries.
- The Spiritual Physicist: A treatise that blended philosophy with medical practices, focusing on the relationship between the mind and body.
8. Al-Jahiz (776–868)
Abu Umar al-Jahiz was an Arab scholar and writer from Basra (Iraq). Al-Jahiz is known for his works in literature, biology, and philosophy. His most famous work is “Kitab al-Hayawan” (The Book of Animals). In this book, he explored the nature of animals in relation to their environment. He was a polymath who also wrote on theology, sociology, and rhetoric.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Jahiz is best known for his works on the theory of evolution, particularly the concept of the struggle for survival and natural selection.
Major Works:
- Kitab al-Hayawan (The Book of Animals): An encyclopedic work on biology, zoology, and the interaction between animals and their environments.
- Kitab al-Bukhala (The Book of Misers): A work of satire that critiques the greediness of people, reflecting his social and ethical views.
9. Ibn Masarra (883–931)
Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Masarra al-Andalusi was a philosopher, mystic, and theologian from Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain). Ibn Masarra is best known for his teachings on Neoplatonism, esoteric philosophy, and the relationship between the soul and the divine. His philosophical views were heavily influenced by both Islamic thought and Greek philosophy.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Masarra’s philosophy combined Neoplatonic ideas with Islamic mysticism, focusing on the soul’s journey towards divine unity and enlightenment. His esoteric teachings emphasized the importance of inner knowledge. He focused on the concept of divine emanation (the idea that everything comes from God).
Major Works:
- Kitab al-Tafsir al-Hakimi: A mystical interpretation of the Quran that incorporates Neoplatonic ideas.
- Al-Risalah al-Maariyya: A treatise on the nature of the soul and its relationship with God.
10. Al-Farabi (c. 872–950)
Abu Nasr al-Farabi was a philosopher, scientist, and logician from Farab (Kazakhstan) who worked in Baghdad and Damascus. Al-Farabi is often referred to as “The Second Teacher”, Aristotle being the first teacher. He is considered one of the greatest philosophers in the Islamic tradition.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Farabi attempted to reconcile Greek philosophy with Islamic thought. He is known for his works on logic, political philosophy, and metaphysics. He believed in the role of reason in understanding the cosmos and the divine.
Major Works:
- Al-Madina al-Fadila (The Virtuous City): A political philosophy work that describes the ideal society, influence from Plato, and the role of the philosopher-king.
- Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir (The Great Book of Music): It was a treatise on the theory of music.
11. Al-Masudi (c. 896–956)
Abu al-Hasan Ali al-Masudi was a historian, geographer, and philosopher from Baghdad (Iraq). Al-Masudi is known for his detailed accounts of the history and geography of the Islamic world. Al-Masudi is Often referred to as the Herodotus of the Arabs. He was a pioneer in the study of both history and natural philosophy. Through his travels, he collected extensive information about different cultures and peoples.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Masudi’s writings combined historical analysis with philosophical ideas, particularly the notion that the physical world is a reflection of divine order.
Major Works:
- Muruj al-Dhahab (The Meadows of Gold): A historical and philosophical work that covers the history of the world and the development of Islamic civilization.
- Kitab al-Tanbih (The Book of Exhortation): A work on ethics and philosophy, blending Islamic teachings with the philosophical traditions of ancient civilizations.
12. Al-Amiri (d. 992)
Abu al-Hassan Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Amiri was a philosopher and theologian from Nishapur, Khorasan (Iran). Al-Amiri is known for his work on the relationship between religion and philosophy. He was a strong advocate for integrating philosophy with Islamic thought and is often associated with the rationalist school of thought.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Amiri tried to prove that reason and revelation were not in conflict. He promoted the idea that philosophy could complement Islamic theology.
Major Works:
- Inqadh al-bashar min al jabr wal-qadar (Deliverance of Mankind from the Problem of Predestination and Free Will): In this book, al-Amiri attempts a resolution of the problem of free will by the application of Aristotelian principles.
- Al-Ilam bi Manaqib al-Islam (The Declaration of the Merits of Islam).
13. Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani (971)
Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani was a philosopher and theologian from Sijistan (Iran). Al-Sijistani is known for his works on ethics and Islamic philosophy, particularly in relation to logic and metaphysics. He followed the Ismaili branch of Shia Islam and played a key role in the insertion of Neoplatonic ideas into Ismaili theology.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Sijistani emphasized the role of ethics in philosophy. He believed in the importance of virtue and self-purification in achieving spiritual enlightenment.
Major Works:
- Kashf al-Mahjub (Unveiling of the Concealed): It is a seven-chapter exposition uncovering divine knowledge, dealing with tawhid, prophethood, creation, and resurrection.
- Kitab al-Iftikhar (The Book of Boasting): A polemical and apologetic work presenting Ismaili doctrines and mythological cosmology.
- Al-Yanabi (The Book of the Wellsprings): A collection of treatizes exploring the sources of wisdom and knowledge. It blends Neoplatonic philosophy with Shiite religious interpretations.
14. Al-Mawardi (c. 972–1058)
Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Habib al-Mawardi was an Arab Islamic scholar, Jurist, and political philosopher born in Basra (Iraq). Al-Mawardi is known for his work on Islamic political theory and jurisprudence. His contributions are in Islamic law, particularly the functioning of the caliphate. He served as a judge and a diplomat in the Abbasid court.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Mawardi is most famous for his work on political philosophy. His renowned book “Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya” (The Ordinances of Government) discussed the nature of Islamic governance and the roles of the ruler.
Al-Mawardi developed the concept of the social contract, which emphasized the importance of mutual obligations between the ruler and the ruled. He believed that justice is the foundation of a stable and prosperous state.
Major Works:
- Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya wal-Wilayat al-Diniyya (The Ordinances of Government): A key treatise on Islamic political theory that outlines the responsibilities of rulers and the framework of governance under Islamic law.
- Kitab Aadab al-Dunya wal-Din: (The Ethics of Religion and of this World)
- Qanun al-Wazarah (Laws regarding the Ministers)
- Kitab Nasihat al-Muluk (The Book of Sincere Advice to Rulers)
15. Al-Maarri (973–1058)
Abu al-Ala Ahmad ibn Abdallah al-Maarri was a blind philosopher, poet, and critic from Syria. Al-Maarri is known for his scepticism and his rationalist approach to Islamic theology. His advocacy for free thought made him a controversial figure.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Maarri’s philosophy was marked by scepticism, humanism, and the rejection of conventional religious practices. He questioned the existence of God and the afterlife and was critical of both religious and philosophical authorities.
Major Works:
- Risalat al-Ghufran (The Epistle of Forgiveness): A satirical and philosophical work that critiques the religious and social structures of his time.
- Luzum ma lam yalzam (Unnecessary Necessity): A collection of his views on ethics, religion, and human nature.
16. Ibn Sina (Avicenna) (980–1037)
Abu Ali al-Husayn ibn Abd Allah ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna in the West, was a renowned Persian polymath. Ibn Sina contributed to philosophy, medicine, and science. Ibn Sina was Born in Afshana (Uzbekistan) around 980 CE. He was one of the most influential thinkers in the Islamic Golden Age. He is best known for his works in philosophy and medicine.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Sina is famous for his integration of Aristotle’s philosophy with Islamic thought, particularly his work on metaphysics, ethics, and logic. His theory of the soul and the nature of existence had a profound impact on later Islamic and Western philosophy. He developed the concept of the necessary being, which emphasized the existence of a necessary and eternal being (God).
Major Works:
- Al-Shifa (The Book of Healing): A comprehensive philosophical and scientific encyclopedia.
- Al-Najat (The Book of Salvation): A shorter, more accessible version of his major philosophical work.
- Kitab al-Qanun fi al-Tibb(The Canon of Medicine): It is a medical encyclopedia that was used as a standard reference in both the Islamic world and medieval Europe.
17. Ibn Meskavayh (932–1030)
Abu Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Yaqub al-Miskawayh was a Persian philosopher, historian, and ethicist. Ibn al-Miskawayh is known for his works on ethics, psychology, and political philosophy. He served as a minister and a diplomat in the Buyid court. His ideas helped to define Islamic ethics.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Meskavayh’s philosophy focused on ethics, the development of the soul, and the pursuit of happiness. His view of ethics combined both Aristotelian and Islamic thought.
Major Works:
- Tahdhib al-Akhlaq (The Refinement of Character): A key work on ethics and the nature of the soul.
- Kitab al-Mahasin wa al-Ada (The Book of Virtues and Vices): Discusses the virtues necessary for a good life.
18. Ibn Hazm (994–1064)
Abu Muhammad Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Hazm was an Andalusian polymath, philosopher, theologian, historian, and Jurist Born in Cordoba (Spain). Ibn Hazm is known for his works on Islamic law, ethics, and philosophy. He is particularly famous for his writings on love and human nature.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Hazm was known for his rationalist approach to Islamic jurisprudence and ethics. He was also a pioneer in the study of love and human emotions.
Major Works:
- Al-Tahqiq fi al-Mahabbah (The Investigation of Love): A treatise on love and emotions, combining both philosophical and psychological insights.
- Al-Fisal fi al-Milal wa al-Ahwa wa al-Nihal (The Separation of the Sects): A critical work on theology and the diversity of Islamic sects.
19. Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani (996–1021)
Hamid al-Din Abul-Hasan Ahmad ibn Abdallah al-Kirmani was a philosopher and theologian Born in Kirman (Iran). al-Kirmani is associated with the Ismaili sect of Shia Islam. He was known for his esoteric approach to philosophy and his influence on Ismaili thought.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Kirmani emphasized the role of inner knowledge (esotericism) in understanding the true meaning of the Qur’an and Islamic teachings.
Major Works:
- Rahat al-aql (Peace of Mind, or Comfort of Reason): It presents Ismaili’s metaphysical and cosmological doctrines, emphasizing reason as a means to attain spiritual enlightenment.
- Al-Aqwal al-dhahabiya (The Golden Sayings): It refutes al-Razi’s argument against the necessity of revelation.
20. Nasir Khusraw (1004–1088)
Nasir Khusraw ibn Harith al-Qubadiyani was a Persian philosopher, poet, and Ismaili missionary from Qubadiyan (Iran). Nasir Khusraw’s works reflect a blend of philosophy, theology, and mysticism, particularly in relation to Ismaili Shism.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Nasir Khusraw focused on the relationship between faith and reason, advocating for a rational understanding of religious teachings.
Major Works:
- Safar-nama (The Book of Travels): It is a philosophical and travelogue work that describes his journey and reflections on Islamic teachings.
- Rawshana-i-Nama (Book of Enlightenment): A philosophical work that explores themes of spiritual illumination and divine knowledge, guiding seekers toward intellectual and spiritual enlightenment.
- Sadatnama (Book of Felicity): A treatise focusing on the concept of true happiness and felicity, offering insights into achieving moral and spiritual fulfilment through wisdom and virtue.
21. Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)
Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali was a Persian philosopher, theologian, and mystic, Born in Tus (Iran). Al-Ghazali is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in Islamic philosophy. His critiques of rationalist philosophy and his integration of Sufism into Islamic thought shaped.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Ghazali’s major work, “The Incoherence of the Philosophers,” critiqued Aristotelian philosophy and argued for the primacy of religious experience over rationalism.
Major Works:
- Ihya Ulum al-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences): It is a comprehensive work on Islamic spirituality, ethics, and law.
- Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers): Critiques of the philosophers of his time, particularly their views on metaphysics and the nature of God.
22. Nizam al-Mulk Tusi (1018–1092)
Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Tusi was a Persian scholar, vizier, and political thinker Born in Tus (Iran). Nizam al-Mulk was the vizier (a high-ranking political advisor) to the Seljuk Empire (950 – 1307). He is credited with establishing a network of schools known as the Nizamiyya, which contributed significantly to the development of education and intellectual life in the Islamic world.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Nizam al-Mulk is famous for his political philosophy, which focused on governance, justice, and the role of the state in maintaining order. His Treatise on governance, “Siyasatnama,” provided detailed advice to rulers on how to govern effectively and justly.
Major Works:
- Siyasatnama (The Book of Government): It is a treatise on governance that integrates practical political advice with moral and philosophical principles. This book offered guidance on how to govern a kingdom wisely and fairly.
23. Omar Khayyam (1048–1131)
Ghiyath al-Din Abul-Fath Omar ibn Ibrahim al-Khayyam was a Persian polymath who contributed to various fields, including mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, and poetry. He was born in Nishapur (Iran). Omar Khayyam’s philosophical and scientific contributions were highly regarded, and he is best known in the West for his poetry, particularly The Rubaiyat (quatrains). Omar Khayyam was a prominent figure in the Seljuk court.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Omar Khayyam is known for his scepticism and his approach to questioning religious and metaphysical concepts. His philosophy often focused on the uncertainty of life and the fleeting nature of existence.
Major Works:
- The Rubaiyat: It is a collection of poetic reflections on life, the nature of existence, and the mysteries of the universe.
- Mathematical and Astronomical Treatizes: Khayyam’s contributions to mathematics, particularly his work on cubic equations, were groundbreaking.
24. Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) (c. 1085–1138)
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya al-Sabti al-Andalusi, also known in the West as Avempace, was a Spanish-Arab philosopher and physician. He is recognized for his contributions to Islamic philosophy, particularly his works on ethics and the soul. Ibn Bajjah is recognized for his contributions to Islamic philosophy, particularly his works on ethics and the soul. He was a prominent figure in the Almoravid court.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Bajjah is known for his synthesis of Greek philosophy and Islamic thought. His philosophy emphasized the cultivation of reason and the pursuit of intellectual virtues as the path to human flourishing. He wrote about the connection between the human soul and the intellect. Ibn Bajjah developed the concept of the unity of existence, which emphasized the interconnectedness of all existence.
Major Works:
- Kitab al-nafs (Book on the Soul)
- Risala fi l-Ghaya al-insaniyya (Treatise on the Objective of Human Beings)
- Risalat al-ittisal al-aql bi al-insan (Letter on the Union of the Intellect with Human Beings)
25. Shahrastani (1086–1153)
Taj al-Din Aba al-Fath Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim ash-Shahrastani was a Persian philosopher, theologian, historiographer, and Islamic scholar from Shahristan, Isfahan (Iran). Shahrastani is known for his work on religious philosophy and critique of various schools of thought, including the philosophers, theologists, and various religious sects of Islam. He was a prominent figure in the Seljuk court.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Shahrastani’s philosophy focused on the intersection of theology and philosophy. He explored various religious schools of thought, particularly the differences between different Islamic sects and their philosophies.
Major Works:
Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal (The Book of Sects and Creeds): A comprehensive work that discusses different religious sects, philosophies, and their teachings.
26. Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli (1104–1170)
Abu Abdallah Muhammad ibn Abdallah ibn Zafar al-Siqilli was an Arab Sicilian philosopher, politician, and scholar. He was born in Sicily (Italy) in 1104 CE. Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli is known for his contributions to philosophy, particularly in the areas of logic and metaphysics.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Zafar’s philosophy focused on ethical conduct and political governance. He also worked on reconciling the classical philosophy with Islamic theology.
Major Works:
Sulwan al-Muta fi Udwan al-Atba (The Consolation of the Ruler During the Enmity of Subjects): Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli’s most famous work. It offers advice to rulers on how to govern effectively, especially in times of unrest. It draws upon philosophical ideas about justice, leadership, and human nature.
27. Ibn Tufail (Abubacer) (c. 1105–1185)
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik ibn Muhammad ibn Tufail al-Qaysi, known as Abubacer in the West, was a Spanish Muslim philosopher, polymath, physician, and scientist. He was born near Granada (Spain). Ibn Tufail is most famous for his philosophical novel, which discusses the nature of human existence and the relationship between reason and revelation.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Tufail is known for his philosophical novel “Hayy ibn Yaqzan,”. In which he explores the development of a human being from birth to rational thought and religious belief.
Major Works:
Hayy ibn Yaqzan (Alive, Son of Awakening): A philosophical allegory that follows a boy named Hayy, Who was raised by a gazelle on a deserted island. The boy, through his own reason and observation of nature, discovers profound truths about the world and God. It explores themes of self-discovery, reason, and the relationship between philosophy and religion.
His philosophical novel influenced later philosophers, like Ibn Rushd and European Enlightenment thinkers.
28. Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126–1198)
Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd, Known in the West as Averroes, was a Spanish Muslim philosopher, polymath, and Jurist. He was born in Cordoba (Spain). Ibn Rushd was influenced by the works of Aristotle and Plato. His commentaries on Aristotle’s works helped to reintroduce and explain Greek philosophy to both the Islamic world and the Western Renaissance.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Rushd focused on reconciling reason and faith, drawing heavily from Aristotelian thought. He believed that philosophy and religion could coexist and that reason was essential in understanding divine truth.
Major Works:
Ibn Rushd wrote about many subjects. His works include philosophy, theology, medicine, astronomy, physics, psychology, mathematics, Islamic jurisprudence, law, and linguistics.
- Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence): Here, Ibn Rushd defended philosophy against A rebuttal to Al-Ghazali’s claim “Incoherence of the Philosophers.”.
- Commentaries on Aristotle: Detailed commentaries on Aristotle’s works, especially on metaphysics, ethics, and logic.
29. Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1154–1191)
Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash ibn Amirak al-Suhrawardi was a Persian philosopher. He was born in Suhraward ( Iran). Suhrawardi is the founder of the Illuminations School of Islamic Philosophy.
Philosophical Contributions: Suhrawardi developed a unique philosophical system that combined elements of ancient Persian thought, Neoplatonism, and Islamic mysticism. His philosophy emphasized the importance of inner illumination and intuitive knowledge. He developed the concept of “Illumination” as a means of acquiring knowledge and understanding. The “light” in his “Philosophy of Illumination” is a divine source of knowledge.
Major Works:
Hikmat al-Ishraq (The Wisdom of Illumination): It is a mystical and philosophical doctrine, blending elements of Persian wisdom, Neoplatonism, and Islamic philosophy to emphasize knowledge through divine light and illumination.
30. Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209)
Fakhr al-Din Muhammad ibn Umar ibn al-Husayn al-Razi was a Persian Muslim polymath, scientist, and philosopher. He was born in Ray (Iran).
Philosophical Contributions: Al-Razi made significant contributions to various fields, including theology, philosophy, Quranic exegesis (interpretation), logic, medicine, and physics. He is known for his encyclopedic works and his critical approach to philosophical and theological issues.
Major Works:
Al-Razi wrote in various fields, such as medicine, chemistry, physics, astronomy, cosmology, literature, theology, ontology, philosophy, history and jurisprudence.
- Al-Mahsul fi Ilm al-Usul (The Compendium on the Science of Principles): A comprehensive work on the principles of Islamic jurisprudence, offering an in-depth analysis of legal theory.
- Tafsir al-Kabir (The Great Commentary): A monumental Quranic exegesis renowned for its rational approach and philosophical insights into the Quranic text.
Later Classical Philosophers
These philosophers belonged to the later periods of the Islamic Golden Age. They were influenced by classical traditions while integrating mysticism, jurisprudence, and theology. This period saw a flourishing of philosophical and mystical thought, with thinkers exploring complex ideas about the nature of reality, God, and the human soul.
31. Ibn Arabi (1165–1240)
Muhyi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muhammad ibn Arabi al-Ta’i al-Andalusi was Arab sufi mystic, philosopher, poet, and theologian from Andalusia. Ibn Arabi is Known for his contributions to Islamic mysticism (Sufism). He became one of the most influential figures in Islamic philosophy. His ideas on the nature of God, the universe, and the self are widely discussed in the fields of theology and metaphysics.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Arabi’s philosophical contributions were primarily in the fields of mysticism, metaphysics, and philosophy of religion. He is best known for his concept of “wahdat al-wujud” (unity of being), where he emphasized that everything in existence is a manifestation of the one divine reality. He also focused on the concept of the Perfect Human (al-Insan al-Kamil), the ideal state that humanity could reach through spiritual realization.
Major Works:
Fusus al-Hikam (The Bezels of Wisdom): A work on metaphysics and Sufism, explaining the unity of being and the divine wisdom behind creation.
Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya (The Meccan Illuminations): A comprehensive work that covers a wide range of mystical, philosophical, and spiritual ideas.
32. Najmuddin Kubra (1145–1220)
Najmuddin Abu al-Majd Majd al-Din Kubra was a Persian Sufi mystic, and philosopher. Najmuddin Kubra was the founder of the Kubrawiya order, one of the most influential Sufi schools. He was born in Khwarezm (Uzbekistan). Najmuddin Kubra works focused on the mystical understanding of the divine and human experience.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Kubra’s philosophical work is centered around the relationship between God and humanity, emphasizing the importance of direct spiritual experience. He proposed that the realization of God’s presence in the world was through mystical contemplation. He wrote about the stages of spiritual development and the different levels of mystical experience.
Major Works:
- Fawaih al-Jamal wa-Fawatih al-Jalal (The Emanations of Beauty and the Openings of Majesty): A mystical treatise exploring divine beauty, majesty, and spiritual insights.
- Usul al-Ashara (The Ten Principles): A concise work that outlines ten foundational principles of Sufism, focusing on spiritual development and divine knowledge.
- Risalat al-Khaif al-Haim min Lawmat al-Laim (The Treatise of the Fearful and Bewildered from the Blame of the Blamer): A reflective treatise addressing the state of the seeker who fears blame on the spiritual path.
33. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274)
Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi, was a Persian polymath, architect, philosopher, physician, scientist, and theologian. Al-Tusi contributed significantly to various fields, including astronomy, mathematics, logic, and philosophy. He was born in Tus (Iran). Al-Tusi worked under the patronage of the Mongol Empire and was instrumental in the development of astronomical observations.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Tusi is known for his synthesis of Aristotelian philosophy with Islamic thought. His work on logic and metaphysics was highly influential. He also made contributions to ethics, epistemology, and philosophy of science.
Major Works:
Tajrid al-Itiqad (The Elimination of Error): It is a major work in Islamic philosophy on theology and logic.
Akhlaq-i-Nasiri (The Ethics of Nasir al-Din): A treatise on ethics that was highly influential in both the Islamic and Western worlds.
34. Rumi (1207–1273)
Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi was a Persian poet, theologian, and Sufi mystic. He was born in Balkh (Afghanistan). Rumi’s philosophical and spiritual teachings, as well as his poetry, have made him one of the most widely read poets in the world. His works emphasize love, the divine, and the mystical union with God.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Rumi’s philosophy revolves around the concept of divine love and the search for spiritual union with God. He taught that through love, individuals could transcend the ego and experience unity with the divine.
Major Works:
Masnavi (Spiritual Couplets): A vast poetic work that provides spiritual guidance and philosophical reflections on life, love, and the nature of the divine.
Diwan-e-Shams-e-Tabrizi (Diwan of Shams of Tabriz): A collection of poems dedicated to his spiritual mentor, Shams of Tabriz.
35. Qotb al-Din Shirazi (1217–1311)
Qutb al-Din Mahmud ibn Masud ibn Muslih al-Shirazi was a Persian polumath, philosopher, astronomer, and mystic. He was born in Shiraz (Iran). Shirazi was one of the most significant philosophers in the Ilkhanid period (1256 – 1353). He contributed to many areas of philosophy, particularly metaphysics, astronomy, and logic.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Shirazi’s philosophy is notable for its synthesis of Sufi mysticism with Aristotelian logic and metaphysics. He also contributed to the understanding of light and optics.
Major Works:
Shirazi made contributions to astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and philosophy.
- Durrat al-Taj li-Ghurrat al-Dubaj (The Pearly Crown): A significant philosophical and ethical work, blending mystical insights with practical guidance for spiritual seekers.
- Sharh Hikmat al-Ishraq Shaykh Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi (Commentary on the Philosophy of Illumination by Shaykh Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi): A detailed commentary that explains and elaborates on Suhrawardi’s Hikmat al-Ishraq, offering insights into the philosophy of illumination.
36. Ibn Kammuna (d. 1284)
Sad ibn Mansur ibn Sad Ibn Kammuna was a Jewish physician and philosopher who was born in Baghdad. Ibn Kammuna made important contributions to Islamic philosophy, particularly in the fields of logic and metaphysics.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Kammuna’s philosophical work centred on logic, metaphysics, and the relationship between faith and reason. He wrote a significant comparative study of religions, Examination of the Three Faiths, which discussed Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
37. Ibn Sabin (1236–1269)
Muhammad ibn Abd al-Haqq ibn Sabin was an Arab Sufi philosopher and mystic from Andalusia. Ibn Sabin is known for his contributions to both metaphysics and Sufism. His work attempted to reconcile mysticism with philosophical thought.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Sabin engaged in philosophical debates and developed his own system of thought that combined elements of Sufism and philosophy. His philosophy integrated Sufism with Neoplatonic thought. His works emphasized the importance of spiritual realization and the inner journey to knowledge.
Major Works:
- al-Kalam ala al-Masail as-Siqiliya (Discourse on the Sicilian Questions): It is a philosophical work addressing a series of queries posed by the ruler of Sicily, Frederick II. It is showcasing the author’s erudition in metaphysics and natural philosophy.
- Budd al-Arif (The Essential of the Gnostic): A profound exploration of Sufism and spiritual knowledge, offering insights into the journey of the mystic toward divine understanding.
38. Allama Hilli (1250–1325)
Jamal al-Din Hasan ibn Yusuf ibn Mutahhar al-Hilli was a Shia Arab philosopher, theologian, and jurist. He was born in Hilla (Iraq). Allama Hilli is known for his contributions to Islamic jurisprudence and philosophy, particularly within the Shia tradition.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Hilli’s work primarily focused on Islamic jurisprudence, theology, and philosophy. He is known for his contributions to logic, ethics, and metaphysics.
Major Works:
Allama Hilli wrote extensively on Islamic law (fiqh), theology (kalam), and logic. His work had a significant impact on the development of Shia jurisprudence and theological thought.
- Kashf al-Yaqin fi Fadail Amir al-Muminin (The Certainty Unveiled on the Virtues of the Commander of the Faithful): It is a concise treatise highlighting the virtues and excellence of Imam Ali in Islamic tradition.
- Minhaj al-Salat fi Ikhtisar al-Misbah (The Path of Prayer in the Abridgment of the Lantern): A work focusing on religious obligations, particularly the proper performance of prayers.
- Minhaj al-Karamah (The Path of Nobility): A significant theological text defending the spiritual and political leadership of Imam Ali and his descendants.
Modern Philosophers
This section focuses on thinkers who emerged after the classical period, roughly from the 14th century onwards. These philosophers often addressed new challenges and sought to connect classical Islamic thought with the changing world. They mainly focused on reform and revivalism and adapted classical Islamic thought to modern challenges.
39. Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)
Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Khaldun was an Arab historian, philosopher, sociologist, and economist. He was born in Tunis (Tunisia). Ibn Khaldun is often considered one of the greatest philosophers of the Islamic world due to his work in the areas of history and sociology, specifically his theories on the rise and fall of civilizations. He travelled extensively throughout the Islamic world, studying with various scholars.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ibn Khaldun’s most important work, the Muqaddimah, laid the foundations for the fields of sociology, economics, and historiography. He is considered one of the founders of sociology and historiography (the study of historical writing). He theorized that civilizations rise and fall based on their social cohesion (asabiyyah) and the strength of tribal and communal ties. He also explored the impact of climate, economics, and politics on the development of civilizations.
Major Works:
Muqaddimah (Prolegomena or Introduction): It is a pioneering work in sociology, historiography, and the philosophy of history. It discusses the principles of civilization, culture, and the cyclical nature of empires.
40. Shams al-Din al-Fanari (1350–1431)
Shams al-Din Muhammad ibn Hamza al-Fanari was a prominent Islamic scholar, mystical philosopher, jurist, and theologian from the Ottoman Empire. Al-Fanari was known for his contributions to Islamic thought, particularly in the areas of logic and theology, and for reconciling various schools of thought within Islam.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Fanari was deeply influenced by classical Islamic thought, particularly from Ibn Arabi, and sought to preserve traditional Islamic teachings while integrating new ideas from the contemporary intellectual world. He is known for his work on logic, metaphysics, and Sufism.
Major Works:
- Sharh al-Isaguji (Commentary on Isaghuji): A commentary on Athir al-Din al-Abhari’s Isaghuji fi al-Mantiq, a widely studied introductory text on logic.
- Misbah al-Uns (The Lantern of Intimacy): A commentary on Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi’s Miftah al-Ghayb, exploring advanced concepts of Sufi metaphysics and spiritual philosophy.
- Resale der Tasavvuf (Treatise on Sufism): A concise exploration of key themes in Sufism, discussing spiritual practices and the mystical path toward divine realization.
41. Sayyid Haydar Amuli (1319–1385)
Sayyid Baha al-Din Haydar ibn Ali al-Husayni al-Alawi al-Amuli was a Persian Shiite philosopher and mystic. He was born in Amul (Iran). Amuli was known for his works on the synthesis of philosophy and Sufism, particularly commentators of the mystic philosopher Ibn Arabi. He was also an important figure in the development of Shiite Islamic mysticism and philosophy.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Amuli emphasized the importance of spiritual knowledge and the mystical experience of God. His works reflect a deep integration of Sufism and Shiite philosophy.
Major Works:
- Asrar al-Sharia wa Atwar al-Tariqa wa Anwar al-Haqiqa (The Secrets of the Sharia, the Stages of the Path, and the Lights of the Truth): It is a comprehensive work integrating the outward practices of Islamic law (Sharia), the stages of the spiritual journey (Tariqa), and the inner realities of divine truth (Haqiqa).
- Jame al-Asrar wa Manba al-Anwar (The Compendium of Secrets and the Source of Lights): A profound exploration of Sufi metaphysics, detailing the mystical path and the unveiling of divine mysteries.
- al-Masa’el al-Amoliya (The Amolian Questions): A treatise addressing key theological and philosophical questions, likely rooted in the intellectual and spiritual concerns of its time.
42. Al-Jurjani (1339–1413)
Ali ibn Muhammad al-Jurjani was a Persian philosopher and theologian. He was born in Jurjan (Iran). Al-Jurjani is known for his contributions to logic, metaphysics, and the philosophy of language. He was also a key figure in the development of Islamic scholasticism.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Jurjani’s works focused on logic, metaphysics, and the nature of language. He is particularly known for his theories on the relationship between words and meaning.
Major Works:
- Masail Hindisia (Mathematical Problems): it is a manuscript focusing on mathematical and geometric questions, reflecting advancements in mathematical sciences
- Istikhraj Khat Nisf al-Nahar min Kitab al-Analima wa al-Burhan Alayh (Derivation of the Meridian Line from the Book of the Analemma and Its Proof): A scientific treatise dealing with the derivation and proof of the meridian line, showcasing expertise in astronomy and mathematical calculations.
43. Abdul Karim Jili (1366–1424)
Abdul Karim al-Jili was a Sufi philosopher and mystic. He was born in Gilan (Iran). Jili is known for his writings on the perfect human being and the relationship between God and humanity.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Jili is best known for his concept of the “Perfect Human” (al-Insan al-Kamil), an idea he inherited from Ibn Arabi. He emphasized the potential for human beings to realize divine qualities within themselves.
Major Works:
Al-Insan al-Kamil (Universal man): A treatise on the concept of the Perfect Human being, exploring the relationship between the individual and the divine.
44. Jami (1414–1492)
Nur al-Din Abdur-Rahman Jami was a Persian Sunni Sufi mystic, poet, and philosopher. He was born in Jam (Iran). Jami was one of the last great classical Sufi poets. He is widely regarded as one of the leading figures of Persian literature.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Jami’s work integrated Sufism with Persian poetry, exploring themes of divine love, spiritual enlightenment, and the soul’s journey to God. He also wrote extensively on ethics, philosophy, and mysticism.
Major Works:
- Divan: A collection of poetry expressing themes of love, spirituality, and mysticism.
- Haft Awrang (The Seven Thrones): A masterpiece composed of seven allegorical poems reflecting moral, mystical, and philosophical themes.
45. Ahmad Zarruq (1442–1493)
Ahmad al-Zarruq was a Moroccan scholar, Maliki jurist, and Sufi philosopher. He was born in Fez (Morocco). Zarruq’s work on Sufism and Islamic ethics was influential in shaping the development of Sufi thought.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Zarruq emphasized the importance of ethical conduct and spiritual purity. His works focused on the practical aspects of Sufism, such as self-discipline, mindfulness, and devotion to God.
Major Works:
Qawaid al-Tasawwuf: A treatise on the principles of Sufism and ethics, offering guidance for personal spiritual development.
46. Al-Taftazani (1322–1390)
Sad al-Din Masud ibn Umar ibn Abd Allah al-Taftazani was a Persian polymath, philosopher, theologian, and logician. He was born in Taftazan (Iran). Al-Taftazani is known for his work in Islamic philosophy, particularly in logic, theology, and the philosophy of language.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Taftazani’s work focused on Islamic theology and logic. He is known for his commentaries on classical Islamic texts, particularly in the areas of logic and metaphysics.
Major Works:
Sharh al-Maqasid: A commentary on the philosophical work of earlier Islamic scholars.
Later Modern Philosophers
This group of thinkers represents a transition, continuing the trends of interpreting and adapting older philosophical traditions while sometimes facing new intellectual currents.
47. Jalal al-Din al-Dawani (1426–1502)
Jalal al-Din al-Dawani was a Persian philosopher, poet, jurist, and theologian. He was born in Isfahan (Iran). Al-Dawani is known for his works on logic, ethics, and Islamic jurisprudence. He was an important figure in the Safavid intellectual movement.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Dawani’s philosophical works focused on logic and ethics, often emphasizing the importance of reason in religious matters. His ideas were deeply influenced by both classical Islamic philosophy and Persian traditions.
Major Works:
Al-Dawani wrote on various topics, including ethics, logic, and theology.
- Lawami al-Ishraq fi Makarim al-Akhlaq (The Gleams of Illumination in Noble Ethics): A work focusing on ethical virtues and moral excellence, blending philosophical and spiritual insights.
- Sharh al-Rubaiyyat (Commentary on the Quatrains): A detailed commentary on a collection of quatrains, likely explaining their philosophical, mystical, or literary meanings.
- Risalat Ithbat al-Wajib al-Qadima (The Treatise on the Proof of the Necessary Being): A theological and philosophical treatise providing arguments for the existence of the Necessary Being (God).
48. Molla Lutfi (d. 1495)
Molla Lutfi was an Ottoman philosopher and theologian. He was born in Bursa (Turkey) around 1450 CE. He studied with various scholars in the Ottoman Empire. Molla Lutfi contributed to the fields of logic, metaphysics, and Islamic jurisprudence.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Molla Lutfi was known for his integration of Islamic thought with Aristotelian logic, focusing on the application of reason to Islamic theology and law.
49. Tashkopri-zade (1495–1561)
Ahmed ibn Mustafa ibn Khalil, known as Tashkopri-zade, was an Ottoman Turkish philosopher, historian, and scholar. Tashkopri-zade is best known for his contributions to Islamic philosophy and jurisprudence during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent.
Key Ideas and Concepts: He was renowned for his studies in logic, philosophy, and Islamic jurisprudence. His works reflect an attempt to reconcile traditional Islamic thought with the emerging intellectual trends of his time.
Major Works:
Sakaik ul-Numan fi ulemai Osmaniye (The Red Anemones on the Scholars of the Ottomans): It is an important biographical dictionary of Ottoman scholars and thinkers. This is a significant source of the intellectual history of the Ottoman Empire.
50. Mir Damad (c. 1570–1631)
Mir Muhammad Baqir Astarabadi, known as Mir Damad, was a Persian Shia philosopher and theologian. He was born in Isfahan (Iran). Mir Damad was a key figure in the development of Islamic philosophy during the Safavid period (1501 – 1736). He was key in the development of Illuminationist philosophy (Ishraqi).
Key Ideas and Concepts: Mir Damad is known for his work on the metaphysics of light and his contributions to the philosophical system of Illuminations. He is considered one of the founders of the Persian philosophical Renaissance in the 16th century. Mir Damad was a central figure in the School of Isfahan, a significant philosophical movement.
Major Works:
- Kitab Qabasat al-Ilahiyah (The Book of the Divine Embers of Fiery Kindling): A philosophical and spiritual treatise exploring divine light and illuminations.
- Kitab al-Jadhawat (The Book of Spiritual Attractions): A text explaining spiritual attractions and mystical insights, focusing on the soul’s inclination toward God.
- Sirat al-Mustaq (The Straight Path): A work offering moral and spiritual guidance, emphasizing the importance of following the straight path in life.
51. Mir Fendereski (1562–1640)
Mir Abul Qasim Mir Fendereski was a Persian philosopher, mystic, and poet. He was born in Isfahan (Iran). Mir Fendereski contributed significantly to Islamic philosophy during the Safavid era. He was best known for his works on Sufism and philosophy.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Fendereski’s philosophy integrated Sufism with classical philosophy, focusing on the mystical experience and the relationship between the human soul and God.
Major Works:
- Resaleh dar Kimiya (Treatise on Alchemy): A treatise that delves into the principles and theories of alchemy, discussing its philosophical and practical aspects.
- Sahre ketabe maharat (Commentary on the Book of Skill): A detailed commentary offering insights and interpretations of a foundational text on skills and technical expertise.
- Resala al-sena iya (Treatise on Industry): A significant work addressing the nature and importance of industries, crafts, and their role in society.
52. Mulla Sadra (1571–1641)
Sadr al-Din Muhammad Shirazi, commonly known as Mulla Sadra, was a Persian Shia philosopher, mystic, and theologian. He was born in Shiraz (Iran). Mulla Sadra is often regarded as the most influential figure in early modern Islamic philosophy. He is considered to be the master of the new school of thought, known as Transcendent Theosophy (Hikmat al-Mutaaliya).
Key Ideas and Concepts: Mulla Sadra’s major philosophical innovation was the idea of substantial motion in metaphysics, which posits that everything in the universe is in constant motion, even at the most fundamental level. It suggests that everything in the universe is in a constant state of change and development. He also emphasized the union of reason and mystical experience.
Major Works:
- Al-Hikmat al-Muta’aliya (Transcendent Theosophy): A systematic philosophical work that combines metaphysics, ethics, and mysticism.
- al-Asfar al-Arbaa (The Four Journeys): A comprehensive work on Islamic philosophy, metaphysics, and spiritual psychology.
53. Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624)
Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi, often called the Mujaddid al-Afthani, was an Indian Islamic scholar, Hanafi jurist, and philosopher. He was born in Sirhind (India). He was also a member of the Naqshbandi Sufi order who lived in India during the era of the Mughal Empire. Ahmad Sirhindi is famous for his revivalist work in Islam and his development of the concept of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Existence). Sirhindi opposed heterodox movements, Din-i Ilahi of Mughal Emperor Akbar within the Mughal court and supported the pure forms of Islamic Law.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Sirhindi’s philosophy focused on the importance of both inner spiritual experience and external religious observance. He is known for his concept of Wahdat al-Shuhud (Unity of existence); here, he offered a different interpretation of mystical experience compared to Ibn Arabi’s Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Existence). He advocated for a return to a purer form of Islam and argued for the compatibility of Sufism and Islamic law.
Major Works:
- Tarikh-e-Dawat-o-Azeemat (The History of Preaching and Determination): It is a comprehensive historical account highlighting the efforts and struggles of individuals dedicated to spreading faith and moral reform.
- Al-Muntakhabaat Min Al-Maktubaat (Selections from the Letters): A collection of selected letters offering profound insights into spiritual, ethical, and social matters, written to inspire and guide the reader.
54. Baha al-din al-Amili (Sheikh Bahai) (1547–1621)
Baha al-Din Muhammad ibn Husayn al-Amili, also known as Baha al-din al-Amili or Sheikh Bahai, was a Lebanese Arab Shia polymath, scholar, philosopher, poet, mathematician, astronomer, and mystic. He was born in Baalbek (Lebanon) but moved to Iran and lived in the Safavid Empire. Sheikh Bahai is known for his contributions to Islamic philosophy, jurisprudence, and Sufism. He also worked in mathematics and astronomy.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Sheikh Bahai’s works covered a range of topics, from jurisprudence to philosophy. He sought to reconcile faith and reason and contributed significantly to integrating mysticism and logic in Islamic thought.
Major Works:
Tashrih Al-Aflak (Anatomy of the Celestial Spheres): It is a scholarly work that explores the principles of astronomy and the movements of celestial bodies.
Al-Khashkul (The Miscellany): A compilation of diverse topics, offering a treasure trove of knowledge and literary insights.
Nan wa ḥalwa (Bread and Sweets): A concise yet profound work that discusses the balance between worldly needs and spiritual nourishment.
55. Mohammad Amin al-Astarabadi (d. 1627)
Mohammad Amin al-Astarabadi was a Persian philosopher and theologian. He was born in Isfahan (Iran). Al-Astarabadi was a leading figure in the Safavid intellectual movement. He is best known for his role in the development of the Twelver Shiite philosophy and was the founder of the Akhbari school of thought within Shia Islam.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Astarabadi contributed to the revival of philosophical thought in Safavid Iran, particularly in the area of theology and philosophy of religion. The Akhbari school emphasized reliance on the Quran and hadith (sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad) as primary sources, which had implications for methodology in other fields of Islamic study, including philosophy.
Major Works:
- Fawaiid al-Madaniyyah fi ar-Radd ala man qal bal al-Ijtihad wa at-Taqlid fi al-Ahkam al-Ilahiyya (The Madinan Benefits in Refutation of Those Who Argue for Ijtihad and Taqlid in Divine Rulings): It is a critical treatise addressing the debate surrounding ijtihad (independent reasoning) and taqlid (legal conformity) in religious rulings.
- Hashiyyah ala Sharh al-Madarak (Marginal Notes on the Commentary of Madarak): An annotation providing detailed explanations and clarifications on a well-known commentary regarding Islamic jurisprudence.
- Sharh at-Tahdhib (Commentary on at-Tahdhib): A comprehensive commentary offering in-depth insights into Tahdhib, a foundational text in Islamic ethics and philosophy.
- Sharh al-Istibsar (Commentary on al-Istibsar): An explanatory work that delves into al-Istibsar, one of the key texts in Islamic traditions and jurisprudence.
- Unmudhaj al-Ulum (The Model of Sciences): A work that presents a structured overview of various branches of knowledge, highlighting their significance and interconnections.
56. Fayd al-Kashani (1598-1680 ᴄᴇ)
Mulla Muhsin Muhammad ibn al-Husayn al-Fayd al-Kashani was a Persian Shia scholar, philosopher, muhaddith, and mystic during the Safavid period. He is also known as Mulla Muhsin and al-Fayd al-Kashani. He was born in Kashan, Iran, around 1598 CE. Fayd al-Kashani was famous for his contributions to both philosophy and Sufism.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Fayd al-Kashani was mainly interested in Islamic philosophy, Illuminationism, Fiqh, Hadith, Sufism, and Transcendent theosophy. His works sought to reconcile Islamic mysticism and philosophy with an emphasis on ethics and spirituality.
Major Works:
Fayd al-Kashani was a prolific writer and extensively.
- Mohjat-al-Beyza
- Ayn al-yaqin (The Certitude of the Eye-witness)
- Abwab-ol-Jenan (the doors of the Paradise)
- Mafatih al-Sharayi (The Keys of Islamic Law)
- Asrar-o-salat (the secrets of the prayers)
- Elm-ol yaghin (certain knowledge)
57. Qazi Said Qumi (1633–1691)
Qazi Said Qumi was an Iranian or Persian Shia philosopher, jurist, and scholar in the Safavid era. He was born in Qum (Iran). Qumi is known for his contributions to the field of Islamic jurisprudence and philosophy.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Qumi was known for his emphasis on rationality and logic within the context of Islamic thought, particularly in Islamic jurisprudence. He contributed significantly to Islamic philosophy, particularly within the Shia tradition, focusing on metaphysics and other core areas of philosophical inquiry.
Major Works:
- Kalid-i Bihisht (The Key to Paradise): It is a spiritual and ethical guide that provides insights into achieving salvation and moral excellence in accordance with religious principles.
58. Mohammad Baqir Majlisi (1627–1699)
Mohammad Baqir Majlisi was a Shia scholar and theologian in the Safavid period. He was born in Isfahan (Iran). Majlisi was influential in shaping Shi’a thought and Islamic philosophy.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Majlisi is primarily known for his work in hadith and jurisprudence. His comprehensive collections and compilations of hadith had implications for various fields of Islamic studies and, by extension, for how philosophical issues were approached within the broader Shia intellectual context.
Major Works:
Bihar al-Anwar: A comprehensive collection of hadiths reflecting his deep philosophical and theological knowledge.
59. Shah Waliullah (1703–1762)
Qutb ud-Din Ahmad ibn Abd-ur-Rahim al-Umari ad-Dehlawi, also known as Shah Waliullah Dehlawi or Shah Waliullah, was Born in Delhi (India) in 1703. Shah Waliullah was an Indian Sunni Islamic scholar, philosopher, and reformer. He is known for his efforts to reform Islamic thought and practice during the Mughal period.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Shah Waliullah advocated for the renewal (tajdid) of Islamic thought and the importance of ijtihad (independent reasoning). He sought to address the socio-political challenges facing the Muslim community in India during the decline of the Mughal Empire and the rise of the Marthata Empire.
Major Works:
- Hujjat Allah al-Baligha (The Conclusive Argument of God): A work on Islamic theology and philosophy aiming to reconcile reason and revelation.
- Izalat al-Khafa a Khilafat al-Khulafa (Removal of Uncertainty About the Caliphate of the Rightly Guided Caliphs): It explores the principles of Islamic governance, the role of the caliphate, and the qualities of ideal leadership, drawing from Quranic guidance and the practices of the Prophet Muhammad and his successors.
60. Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai (1753–1826)
Shaykh Ahmad al-Ahsai was a Shia scholar and philosopher who founded the Shaykhi school of thought. He was born in Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. His ideas influenced the development of the Shaykhi school and later esoteric Islamic movements.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Ahsa’i developed a unique theological and philosophical system that included interpretations of eschatology (the study of end times) and the nature of reality. He emphasized esoteric interpretations of Islamic texts and the importance of spiritual insight.
Major Works:
- Sharh al-Ziyarat (Explanation of the Visitations): A commentary elaborating on the significance and etiquettes of spiritual visitations in Islam.
- Jawami’ al-Kalim (Compendium of Wisdom): A collection of concise and profound sayings of the Prophet Muhammad, offering timeless guidance.
- Rasa’il al-Hikma (Epistles of Wisdom): A series of treatizes addressing philosophical and theological concepts in light of Islamic teachings.
- Al-Da’ira al-‘Alamiyya (The Universal Sphere): A work discussing the interconnectedness of divine knowledge, creation, and the cosmic order.
61. Rashid Rida (1865–1935)
Muhammad Rashid ibn Ali Ridha was an Egyptian Islamic scholar, reformer, theologian, and revivalist. Rashid Rida was Born in Qalamoun, Lebanon.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Rashid Rida was a key figure in the Salafiyya movement, which emphasized a return to the early practices and interpretations of Islam. He also wrote extensively on political and social issues facing the Muslim world in the early 20th century.
Major Works:
- Al-Manar (The Beacon): A progressive Islamic journal that addressed contemporary issues, reformist ideas, and the reinterpretation of Islamic teachings.
Tafsir al-Manar (The Beacon Commentary): A modernist Quranic exegesis by Rashid Rida, emphasizing rationality, social reform, and the application of Quranic principles in the modern era.
Contemporary Philosophers (Late 19th Century to the Present)
This final group represents thinkers who grappled with the challenges of modernity, including colonialism, Westernization, and the need for social and political reform within Muslim societies.
62. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1838–1897)
Sayyid Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was a political activist, Philosopher, and reformist. He was born in Asadabad, Afghanistan, around 1838 CE and died in Istanbul, Ottoman Empire. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani was a key figure in the Islamic revivalist movement and played a significant role in the modernization of the Muslim world. He travelled all over the Islamic world, advocating for reform and modernization.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Jamal al-Din al-Afghani advocated for pan-Islamism (unity among Muslim nations) and resistance to Western imperialism. He emphasized the importance of modern education and scientific progress for Muslim societies. His ideas were influential in shaping anti-colonial movements.
Major Works:
Al-Radd ala al-Dahriyin (Refutation of the Materialists): A philosophical treatise defending Islamic beliefs against the arguments of materialism and atheism.
63. Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905)
Muhammad Abduh was an Egyptian scholar, theologian, Philosopher, reformer, and jurist. He was born in Mahallat Nasr, Egypt, around 1849 CE. Abduh is known for his role in the Islamic reform movement alongside Jamal al-Din al-Afghani. He advocated for rationalism in Islamic thought and criticized traditionalism.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Muhammad Abduh highlight the need for Islamic modernism and reformism in response to Western colonialism and secularism. He focused on the importance of ijtihad (independent reasoning) and the compatibility of Islam with modern scientific and philosophical ideas. He tried to bring about social and educational reforms within Muslim countries.
Major Works:
- Risalat al-Tawhid (The Theology of Unity): A work that sought to reinterpret Islamic theology in light of modernity.
- Essai sur ses idees philosophiques et religieuses (Essay on His Philosophical and Religious Ideas): A study of Muhammad Abduh’s intellectual contributions and modernist views.
- Tafsir al-Manar (The Manar interpretation): A reformist and modernist interpretation of the Quran, co-authored with Rashid Rida.
64. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898)
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was an Indian Muslim scholar, Philosopher, reformer, and educator from India. He was born in Delhi, India, in 1817. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan is known for his efforts to promote modern education among Muslims in colonial India. He founded the Aligarh Movement and the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, which became Aligarh Muslim University in 1920.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Sir Syed advocated for Western scientific education for Indian Muslims. He believed that Muslims needed to embrace modern science and knowledge to progress. He focused on the importance of scientific education and rationalism for the progress of Muslims in the modern world and sought to reconcile Islamic teachings with modern scientific discoveries.
Major Works:
- Asar al-Sanadid (The Monuments of the Leaders): A pioneering historical and architectural survey of Delhi’s notable monuments and cultural heritage.
- Tahzib al-Akhlaq (The Refinement of Morals): A treatise promoting ethical reform and moral education in society.
- The Commentary on the Bible: A critical analysis and comparative commentary on biblical texts from an Islamic perspective.
- Tafsir-ul-Quran (Interpretation of the Quran): A comprehensive interpretation of the Qur’anic verses with emphasis on reformist and philosophical insights.
65. Syed Ameer Ali (1849–1928)
Key Ideas and Concepts: Syed Ameer Ali wrote on Islamic history, law, and culture, seeking to present Islam in a way that was compatible with modern Western thought. He promoted the idea of a modern, progressive interpretation of Islam, advocating for the integration of Western knowledge while preserving Islamic values.
Syed Ameer Ali was an Indian Muslim jurist, Scholar, and Philosopher. He was born in Bengal, India, in 1849 and died in London, United Kingdom. Syed Ameer Ali advocated for the modernization and reform of Islamic thought. He contributed to Islamic jurisprudence, Islamic history, and philosophy in colonial India.
Major Works:
- The Spirit of Islam: A comprehensive study of the history, theology, and philosophy of Islam.
- A Short History of Saracens: A historical account of the Saracen (Arab) civilization from its rise to its decline.
- The Legal Position of Women in Islam: An analysis of women’s rights and status in Islamic law.
66. Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938)
The Philosopher that everyone knows.
Allama Muhammad Iqbal was an Indian Muslim philosopher, poet, and politician. Iqbal was born in Sialkot, British India, in 1877 (now Pakistan) and died in Lahore, Pakistan. He studied in Europe and was influenced by Western philosophers such as Nietzsche and Goethe.
Iqbal is one of the most important figures in the development of modern Islamic thought. His philosophical thoughts and poetry played a key role in the Pakistani movement that ultimately led to the creation of Pakistan.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Muhammad Iqbal’s philosophy is based on self-empowerment, the nature of reality, and his concept of Khudi (selfhood). Iqbal promoted the idea of a dynamic, creative force within the individual and emphasized the need for a revitalization of Islamic civilization. He focused on the need for spiritual revival and self-awareness among Muslims and advocated for a separate Muslim state in India (which led to the creation of Pakistan).
Major Works:
Allama Muhammad Iqbal wrote extensively; some of his works are:
- The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam: A series of lectures that argue for a dynamic and progressive interpretation of Islamic philosophy.
- Bang-e-Dra: A collection of poems that express his philosophical and political thoughts.
- Bal-e-Jibril
Iqbal’s ideas profoundly influenced the intellectual and political landscape of the Muslim world, especially in South Asia, and he is widely regarded as the “Spiritual Father of Pakistan.”
67. Ali Abd al-Raziq (1885–1966)
Ali Abd al-Raziq was an Egyptian Islamic scholar, judge, and reformer. Abd al-Raziq was born in Minya, Egypt, in 1885. He is famous for his controversial ideas regarding the separation of religion and politics in Islam. His work provoked debates about the role of the caliphate in the modern Muslim world.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ali Abd al-Raziq advocated for the separation of religion and state, suggesting that Islam does not mandate a specific form of government.
Major Works:
- Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm (Islam and the Foundations of Governance): A treatise in which he argued that Islam does not prescribe a particular political system.
- Al-Ijma Fi Ash-Shariah Al-Islamiyyah (Consensus and Islamic Law): An exploration of the concept of consensus (ijma) as a foundational source of Islamic jurisprudence.
68. Ali Shariati (1933–1977)
Ali Shariati Mazinani was an Iranian sociologist, Philosopher, and revolutionary thinker. He was born in Mazinan, Iran, around 1933 CE and died in 1977 in London. Ali Shariati studied in France and was influenced by Western philosophical and sociological theories, including Marxism, existentialism, and phenomenology.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ali Shariati focused on integrating Islamic principles with socialist ideas. He critiqued the existing conditions of Muslim societies and advocated for a return to an authentic Islamic “self.” He is famously known for promoting the concept of “Islamic socialism” and challenging the dominance of Western ideologies in the Muslim world.
Major Works:
- Hajj (Pilgrimage): A work reflecting on the symbolic and spiritual significance of the pilgrimage in Islam.
- The Free Man and Freedom of the Man
- Red Shiism vs. Black Shiism
69. Abul Ala Maududi (1903–1979)
Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi was a Pakistani Islamic scholar, Philosopher, Historian, jurist, activist, reformer, and political theorist. He was born in British India in 1903 (now Pakistan) and died in 1979 in Pakistan. Maududi advocated for the establishment of an Islamic state and founded the Islamist party Jamaat-e-Islami in colonial India. His teachings facilitated the development of Islamic political ideology in the 20th century.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Abul Ala Maududi’s philosophical contributions were primarily in the fields of Islamic reform, theology, and philosophy of politics. He is known for his idea of “Islamic governance” and his belief in the necessity of an Islamic state governed by Sharia law. He strived for the implementation of Islamic principles in all aspects of life, including politics, education, and economics.
Major Works:
Abul Ala Maududi is a prolific writer.
- Towards the Islamic State: A work outlining his vision for a political system based on Islamic principles.
- Islamic Way of Life: A comprehensive exploration of Islam’s teachings and its application in society.
- The Islamic Law and Constitution
- Purdah & the Status of Women in Islam
- Islamic Law and its Introduction in Pakistan
- Khutabat: Fundamentals of Islam
- System of Government Under the Holy Prophet
- The Rights of Non-Muslims in Islamic State
- Khilafat o Malookiat (Caliphate and Kingship)
70. Malek Bennabi (1905–1973
Malek Bennabi was an Algerian Muslim philosopher, sociologist, and reformer. He was born in Constantine, Algeria, in 1905. He studied with various scholars in Algeria and France. Bennabi is famous for his theories on the social and cultural decline of the Muslim world and the path to its revitalization. He analyzed the reasons for the decline of Muslim societies and gave a concept of “civilizational crisis”. He called for a return to Islamic values as a means of overcoming the challenges facing the Muslim world.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Malek Bennabi offered solutions for the advancement of the Muslim world. His main idea was the concept of “civilizational crisis” and the role of culture and spirituality in overcoming it. He asserted that Muslims need to rediscover their intellectual and moral roots to overcome the challenges of the modern world of colonialism and secularism.
Major Works:
- The Question of Ideas in the Muslim World: A book that addresses the intellectual crisis facing the Muslim world.
- The Problem of Culture
71. Ghulam Ahmed Perwez (1903–1985)
Ghulam Ahmed Perwez was a Pakistani philosopher, Islamic scholar, senior Civil servant, and reformer. He was born in British India (now Pakistan) in 1903 and died in 1985 in Pakistan. Perwez is famous for his reformist approach to Islamic thought. He emphasized the need for reinterpretation of Islamic teachings in light of modern scientific discoveries.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ghulam Ahmed Perwez called for a rationalist interpretation of Islam that is compatible with modern scientific and social advancements. He believed in a non-dogmatic approach to Islamic teachings. He advocated for the elimination of outdated practices and the adaptation of Islam to the modern world.
Major Works:
- Islam: A Challenge to Religion
- Exposition of the Holy Quran
- The Quranic System of Sustenance
72. Henry Corbin (1903–1978)
Henry Corbin was a French philosopher, scholar of Islamic philosophy, theologian, and professor of Islamic studies at the Ecole pratique des hautes etudes. He was born in Paris, France, in 1903. He was particularly interested in Iranian mysticism and was a key figure in the study of Sufism and Shi’ism in the West. Corbin is famous for his deep exploration of Islamic esoteric thought and helped revive the works of Iranian philosophers such as Suhrawardi and Mulla Sadra.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Henry Corbin’s main area of interest was the mystical and spiritual dimensions of Islamic thought. He explored the ideas of Suhrawardi, Mulla Sadra, Ibn Arabi and other mystics, emphasizing the role of imagination and spiritual experience in Islamic philosophy.
Major Works:
- Creative Imagination in the Sufism of Ibn Arabi: A Book that delves into the mystical experiences described by Ibn Arabi.
- The History of Islamic Philosophy”: A comprehensive study of Islamic philosophical thought.
- Temple and Contemplation
73. Mohammad-Taqi Ja’fari (1923–1998)
Allama Mohammad-Taqi Ja’fari was an Iranian Shia scholar, Philosopher, intellectual, and theologist. He was born in Tabriz, Iran in 1923. Ja’fari is famous for his interdisciplinary approach to Islamic thought.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Allama Mohammad-Taqi Ja’fari explored philosophical and social issues from an Islamic perspective. He emphasized the importance of ethics and spirituality in human life. He strived to Integrate Islamic philosophy with modern science, psychology, and ethics.
Major Works:
- A Comparative Study of the Universal Human Rights: From The Viewpoints Of Islam And The West
- Islam’s Political Philosophy
- The Mystery of Life
- The Coordination between Science & Religion
- Philosophy and Aim of Life
74. Fazlur Rahman (1919–1988)
Fazlur Rahman Malik was a Pakistani Islamic scholar, Philosopher, and modernist. He was born in Hazara, Pakistan, in 1919 and died in Chicago, Illinois, USA. Fazlur Rahman is famous for his efforts to reinterpret Islamic teachings in the context of modernity.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Fazlur Rahman Malik called for a contextual and historical interpretation of the Quran and Islamic teachings. He emphasized the compatibility of Islam with the modern world.
Major Works:
- Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition
- Avicenna’s Psychology
- Islamic Methodology in History
75. Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966)
Sayyid Ibrahim Husayn Shadhili Qutb was an Egyptian Islamic theorist, writer, and revolutionary. He was born in Egypt in 1906. Sayyid Qutb was a leading member of the Muslim Brotherhood known for his radical views.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Sayyid Qutb was a strong critic of modern and secular states and emphasized a return to the fundamental principles of Islam. He called for the establishment of an Islamic state and criticized Western influence in Muslim societies. His radical ideas and revolutionaries have influenced Islamist movements and ideologies worldwide.
Major Works:
Sayyid Qutb was a prolific writer and authored many books, treatizes, and articles.
- Maalim fi al-Tariq (Milestones)
- Fi zilal al-Quran (In the Shade of the Quran)
76. Muhammad Asad (1900–1992)
Leopold Weiss, later named Muhammad Asad, was an Austrian-born Jewish Islamic scholar, thinker, journalist, and diplomat. He was born in Lviv, Ukraine (then Austria-Hungary) in 1900. Leopold Weiss converted to Sunni Islam in 1926 and adopted the name Muhammad Asad.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Muhammad Asad called for a rational understanding and interpretation of Islam. He emphasized the rationality and universality of Islam.
Major Works:
- The Road to Mecca
- The Message of the Quran
77. Tariq Ramadan (b. 1962)
Tariq Ramadan was a Swiss Muslim academic, philosopher, writer, and professor of contemporary Islamic studies at St Antony’s College, Oxford and the Faculty of Theology and Religion, University of Oxford. Born in Geneva, Switzerland in 1962. Ramadan is famous for his work on Islamic reform, integration in the West, and interfaith dialogue. He is a prominent figure in the European Muslim community, advocating for the adaptation of Islamic principles to contemporary social and political realities.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Tariq Ramadan focuses on the integration of Islam into modern Western societies. His works emphasized the importance of reforming Islamic thought in the context of modern challenges while maintaining core Islamic values.
Major Works:
- Islam, the West and the Challenges of Modernity: A book discussing the challenges faced by Muslims living in Western societies.
- The Quest for Meaning: Developing a Philosophy of Pluralism: Explores Islamic responses to pluralism and multiculturalism.
- In the Footsteps of the Prophet
78. Hamza Yusuf (b. 1958)
Hamza Yusuf is an American-Muslim philosopher, theologian, and Islamic scholar. He was born Mark Hanson in Washington, USA, in 1958. In 1977, Yusuf converted to Sunni Islam. He is famous for his efforts in reviving traditional Islamic knowledge in the modern context. His thoughts stress the spiritual development and the renewal of classical Islamic scholarship.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Hamza Yusuf’s teachings advocated for Islamic spirituality, ethical renewal, and the importance of returning to traditional Islamic sources in the face of modern challenges. He called for a balanced understanding of Islam that integrates faith and reason.
Major Works:
- The Purification of the Heart: A book on Islamic ethics and spirituality.
- Agenda to Change Our Condition
Hamza Yusuf is an influential figure in the American Muslim community and has contributed significantly to the renewal of classical Islamic thought, especially in the context of Western challenges.
Channel: Hamza Yusuf
79. Seyyed Hossein Nasr (b. 1933)
Seyyed Hossein Nasr is an Iranian philosopher, Islamic scholar, theologian and professor of Islamic studies at George Washington University. He was born in Tehran, Iran in 1933. Nasr studied in Iran and then in the United States. He is influenced by classical Islamic philosophy, especially that of Ibn Sina and Ibn Arabi. He is one of the strong contemporary advocates of traditionalism and Perennial Philosophy. Nasr is famous for his work in Islamic metaphysics and spirituality and his critiques of modernity.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Seyyed Hossein Nasr is a leading advocate of traditional Islamic philosophy and the perennialist school of thought, which emphasizes the common metaphysical truths underlying different religions. He is emphasizing the need to preserve the essential spiritual truths of all religions. Nasr critiques the secularism and materialism of modernity, calling for a return to transcendent values.
Major Works:
- The Need for a Sacred Science: A book which discusses the need for a return to sacred knowledge to counter the destructive effects of modern science.
- Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study: Explores the role of science in Islamic tradition and its spiritual foundations.
- The Encounter of Man and Nature
- Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present
- The Heart of Islam
- Islamic Life and Thought
80. Wael Hallaq (b. 1955)
Wael Hallaq is a Palestinian scholar of Islamic law philosophy and Professor of Islamic law and Islamic intellectual history at Columbia University. He was born in Palestine in 1955. Hallaq is famous for his critical engagement with Islamic legal traditions, especially Sharia and the relationship between Islam and modernity. He is recognized for his scholarly approach to Islamic ethics and jurisprudence.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Wael Hallaq’s philosophical contributions are primarily in the fields of Islamic philosophy, theology, and law. He critiques the Western approaches to Islamic law and calls for a return to classical Islamic legal frameworks. He examines the challenges of modernity and colonialism in relation to Islamic institutions.
Major Works:
Hallaq wrote extensively.
- The Impossible State: Islam, Politics, and Modernity’s Moral Predicament: A critical examination of the state and Islamic law in the modern context.
- Sharia: Theory, Practice, Transformations: A comprehensive analysis of the evolution of Islamic law.
- A History of Islamic Legal Theories
- Restating Orientalism: A Critique of Modern Knowledge
81. Ziauddin Sardar (b. 1951)
Ziauddin Sardar is a British-Pakistani scholar, cultural critic, award-winning writer, and public intellectual. He specializes in Muslim thought, the future of Islam, futurology, the Critique of modernity, and postmodernism. Sardar was born in Dipalpur, Pakistan, in 1951. He is famous for his work in Islamic thought, modernity, and science. He is a well-known critic of Western modernity. He has contributed notably to discussions on Islamic philosophy in the contemporary world.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ziauddin Sardar’s work explores the relationship between Islam, science, technology, and culture. He is known for his critiques of Western modernity and his advocacy for a more just and sustainable future. He stresses the need for an Islamic re-engagement with science, technology, and modernity.
Major Works:
- The Islamic World: A critical study of the state of the Muslim world in the modern era.
- Islamic Futures: The Shape of Ideas to Come: Explores the future of Islamic thought and its role in the modern world.
- Islam, Postmodernism and Other Futures
- Desperately Seeking Paradise
Sardar is a leading voice in contemporary discussions about Islam and its role in the modern world.
website:Ziauddin Sardar
82. Javed Ahmad Ghamidi (b. 1951)
Javed Ahmad Ghamidi is a well-known Pakistani Islamic scholar, educationist, philosopher, historian, political theorist, and theologian. He was born in Pakpattan, Punjab, Pakistan, in 1951. Ghamidi is famous for his rationalist and reformist approach to Islamic teachings.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Javed Ahmad Ghamidi calls for a contextual and rational interpretation of the Quran and Islamic law. He is emphasizing the importance of reason and the ethical principles of the Quran.
Major Works:
- Meezan
- Counter Narrative
- Reconstruction of Islamic Philosophy
- Al Bayan (Quran interpretation)
- Burhan
Ghamidi’s progressive interpretations have generated significant debate and discussion within the Muslim intellectual community.
83. Abdulkarim Soroush (b. 1945)
Abdolkarim Soroush is an Iranian scholar, philosopher, reformer, intellectual and former professor of philosophy at the University of Tehran. He was born in Tehran, Iran in 1945. Soroush studied both in Iran and later in London, UK. He is famous for his critiques of traditionalist interpretations of Islam.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Abdolkarim Soroush favours a reformist interpretation of Islam and the compatibility of Islam with democracy and human rights. He is emphasizing the importance of reason, individual conscience, and democratic values.
Major Works:
- Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam
- The Expansion of Prophetic Experience
Soroush ideas have influenced contemporary Islamic reform movements and intellectual discourse.
84. Morteza Motahhari (1919–1979)
Morteza Motahhari was an Iranian Shia Islamic scholar, philosopher, lecturer, and political theorist. He was born in Fariman, Iran, in 1919 and died in Tehran, Iran, in 1970. Motahhari studied under Ruhollah Khomeini. He is considered to have a major influence on the ideologies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. He formed the Council of the Islamic Revolution at Khomeini’s request.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Morteza Motahhari advocated for the integration of Islamic philosophy with modern social and political thought. His work emphasized reconciling traditional Islamic thought with modern philosophical and social ideas. He played a major role in the intellectual groundwork for the Iranian Revolution of 1979.
Major Works:
Morteza Motahhari was a prolific writer.
- Fundamentals of Islamic Thought
- Devine Justice
- Tawhid (Monotheism)
- Fundamentals of Islamic Thought: God, Man, and the Universe
- Osool -e Falsafa va ravish-e-Realism (The Principles of Philosophy and the Method of Realism)
Motahhari teachings continue to be a foundational part of Iranian Islamic thought and education.
85. Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr (1935–1980)
Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr was an Iraqi Shia cleric, scholar, philosopher, politician, and founder of the Islamic Dawa Party. He was born in Al-Kazimiyyah, Iraq, in 1935 and executed in Baghdad, Iraq, in 1980 by the regime of Saddam Hussein. Baqir al-Sadr is famous for his contributions to Islamic economics and political theory.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr developed theories on Islamic economics and governance. His teachings emphasize social justice. He also contributed to logic and jurisprudence.
Major Works:
- Falsafatuna (Our Philosophy)
- Iqtisaduna (Our Economy)
- Buhuth fi Sharh al- Urwah al Wuthqa (Discourses on the Commentary of al-Urwah al-Wuthqa), four volumes
- Durus fi Ilm al-Usul (Lessons in the Science of Jurisprudence)
- Al-Mujaz fi Usul al-Din: al-Mursil, al-Rasul, al-Risalah (The Summarized Principles of Religion: The Sender, The Messenger, The Message)
86. Ayatollah Khomeini (1902–1989)
Everyone should know.
Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini was an Iranian Shia cleric, politician, revolutionary, leader of the Iranian Revolution, and founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran. He was born in Khomein, Iran, in 1902. Khomeini overthrew Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, ended the Iranian monarchy and developed the Islamic Republic of Iran. He was the first supreme leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989 until his death.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Ayatollah Khomeini was a patron of the establishment of an Islamic state governed by the principle of “Wilayat al-Faqih” (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist). His political and religious ideas are known as Khomeinism.
Major Works:
- Islamic Government
- Forty Hadith of Khomeini
- Kashf al-Asrar
- Tahrir al-Wasilah
Khomeini’s revolutionary ideas and leadership profoundly transformed Iranian society and politics.
87. Abdel Rahman Badawi (1917–2002)
Abdel Rahman Badawi was an Egyptian existentialist philosopher, Islamic scholar, poet, and professor of philosophy. He was born in Egypt, around 1917 CE. Badawi was a key figure in modern Arab thought and Islamic philosophy. He is famous for his work on existentialism, phenomenology, and Islamic humanism.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Abdel Rahman Badawi’s work combines Western existentialism with Islamic thought, especially in terms of human freedom, dignity, and ethics. He searched the intersection of modernity and Islamic values, emphasizing human existence and the quest for meaning.
Badawi is one of the leading figures in the development of modern Islamic philosophy. He offered a unique synthesis of existentialism and Islamic thought.
88. Muhammad Arkoun (1928–2010)
Muhammad Arkoun was an Algerian scholar of Islamic studies, philosopher, and professor at the Lyon 2 University (1969–1972), Paris 8 University, and then at the New Sorbonne University of Paris (1972–1992). He was born in Taourirt-Mimoune, Algeria, in 1928, and studied with various scholars in Algeria and France. Arkoun was famous for his work on Islamic thought, modernity, and critical theory. He sought to introduce critical and scientific methodologies into the study of Islamic history, theology, and philosophy.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Muhammad Arkoun was a proponent of critical analysis of Islam and called for a renewal of Islamic thought. He stated that Islam must engage with modernity in a critical and self-reflective way and get rid of traditions that no longer serve contemporary realities.
Major Works:
Arkoun wrote many books in certain languages.
- Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers: this book explores the need to reformulate the relationship between Islam and modernity.
- Islam: To Reform or to Subvert: Examines the challenges of reforming Islamic thought in the modern world.
- The Unthought in Contemporary Islamic Thought
89. Amina Wadud (b. 1952)
Amina Wadud is an African-American Muslim scholar, activist, philosopher, theologian, and professor of Religious Studies. She was born in Bethesda, Maryland, US, around 1952 CE. Amina Wadud studied with various scholars in the United States and Egypt. She converted to Islam in 1972. Wadud is famous for her work on feminist theology and Islamic gender studies. She is an advocate for gender equality and women’s rights within the framework of Islamic teachings.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Amina Wadud has a feminist approach to the Quran and Islamic texts and advocates for gender equality. She seeks to challenge traditional patriarchal interpretations of Islamic doctrine. Her works promote women’s vices in matters of gender justice and the role of women in Islamic societies.
Major Works:
Wadud has written largely on the role of women in Islam.
- Qur’an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective: A book that reexamines the Quranic verses related to women and challenges patriarchal readings.
- Inside The Gender Jihad: Women’s Reform in Islam: Explores the intersection of feminism and Islam.
- Qur’an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective
90. Khaled Abou El Fadl (b. 1963)
Khaled Abou El Fadl is a philosopher, theologian, Islamic scholar, and Professor of Law. He is famous for his work on Islamic law, human rights, and Islamic jurisprudence. Abou El Fadl is a prominent voice in promoting a more progressive and inclusive interpretation of Islam.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Khaled Abou El Fadl states for an ethical Islam that emphasizes justice, human rights, and mercy. He critiques the traditional interpretation of Islam and advocates for a more flexible and humane approach to Islamic law and governance.
Major Works:
- The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists: A book that explores the dangers of extremist interpretations of Islam and advocates for a return to the spirit of justice in Islamic law.
- Islam and the Challenge of Democracy: Discusses the compatibility of Islam with democracy and modernity.
- The Search for Beauty in Islam: A Conference of the Books
91. Israr Ahmed (1932–2010)
Dr. Israr Ahmed was a Pakistani Islamic scholar, philosopher, theologian, and orator. He was born on April 26, 1932, in Hisar, Punjab, British India (now Haryana, India). Israr Ahmed was famous for his work on Islamic philosophy, political thought, and the concept of the Islamic state. He was a strong proponent of Islamic revivalism and a return to pure Islamic principles in contemporary society. He was the founder of the Tanzeem-e-Islami organization, which was founded in 1975.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Israr Ahmed advocated for the establishment of an Islamic state governed by Sharia law and the revival of Islamic values. He called for the re-establishment of the Caliphate as a global Islamic political order and to implement Sharia law in all spheres of life. He was convinced that Western values created a threat to Islam and Pakistan.
Major Works:
Israr Ahmed has written over 60 books on Islam and Pakistan.
- Islamic Renaissance: A call for the revival of Islamic political, social, and spiritual principles.
- Towards Understanding Islam: Provides an introduction to the core principles of Islam.
- The Call of Tanzeem-e-Islami
His teachings have had an enduring impact on Islamic revivalist movements, particularly in South Asia.
92. Mohammed Abed al-Jabri (1935–2010)
Mohammed Abed al-Jabri was a Moroccan philosopher and intellectual. He was born on December 27, 1935, in Figuig, Morocco. Al-Jabri is famous for his critique of Arab reason and his work on modern Arab thought.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Mohammed Abed al-Jabri had a historical and epistemological approach, and his work focused on the critique of Arab-Islamic thought. He sought to identify the underlying structures of Arab thought and to promote a more critical and rational approach to understanding Arab-Islamic history and culture.
Major Works:
- Critique of Arab Reason
- Arab-Islamic Philosophy: A Contemporary Critique
- Democracy, Human Rights and Law in Islamic Thought
93. Abdollah Javadi-Amoli (b. 1933)
Abdollah Javadi-Amoli is an Iranian Shia Shia scholar, philosopher, and politician. He was born on May 5, 1933, in Amol, Iran.
Here is his official website
Key Ideas and Concepts: Javadi-Amoli is famous for his work in Islamic philosophy, Quranic exegesis, mysticism, and jurisprudence.
Major Works:
Tasneem Tafsir (Quranic exegesis)
94. Sadiq Jalal al-Azm (1934–2016)
Sadiq Jalal al-Azm was a a Syrian philosopher and public intellectual. He was born on October 1, 1934, in Damascus, Syria.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Al-Azm was famous for his critical approach to Islamic thought and political issues, as well as his advocacy for secularism and modernity in the Arab world.
Major Works:
- Naqd al-Fikr al-Dini (Critique of Religious Thought)
- Self-Criticism After the Defeat
- Kant’s Theory of Time
94. Fatima Mernissi (1940–2015)
Fatima Mernissi was a Moroccan sociologist, writer, activist, and feminist. She was born in Fez, Morocco, in 1940 and studied in Morocco, France, and US. Mernissi is famous for her work on Islamic feminism and the role of women in Islamic societies. She challenged patriarchal structures in Muslim societies and called for a reinterpretation of Islamic texts.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Fatima Mernissi focused on the role of women in Islam. She criticized the gendered structures in Islamic society and called for the reinterpretation of Islamic history, teachings, and scripture to highlight the roles women have played.
Major Works:
- The Veil and the Male Elite: A critical examination of gender relations in Islam and a critique of patriarchal interpretations of Islamic texts.
- Beyond the Veil: A book that explores the relationship between gender and power in Islamic societies.
95. Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi (1934–2021)
Muhammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi Giwachi was an Iranian cleric, philosopher, political theorist, and a member of the Assembly of Experts. He was born in Yazd, Iran, in 1934. Mesbah-Yazdi was famous for his works on Islamic philosophy, theology, and political theory. He was a notable figure in Iranian intellectual circles and had close ties to the Islamic government in Iran.
Here is the Official website
Key Ideas and Concepts: Mesbah-Yazdi focused on explaining the foundations of Islamic philosophy and defending traditional viewpoints. He was known for his support of the Wilayat al-Faqih (the rule of the Islamic jurist) and theocratic governance in Iran. His philosophy also dealt with mysticism and Islamic ethics.
Major Works:
- Islamic Political Thought: Discusses the theoretical framework of Islamic governance and the concept of Islamic democracy.
- At-Tawhid or Monotheism
- A Cursory Glance at the Theory of Wilayat al-Faqih
96. Gary Legenhausen (b. 1953)
Key Ideas and Concepts: Gary Legenhausen mainly focuses on Islamic ethical theory and the role of reason in Islamic thought. His work explores the compatibility of Islamic teachings with modern moral philosophy. His contributions are in the fields of Islamic philosophy, theology, and comparative philosophy.
Gary Legenhausen is an American philosopher and professor of philosophy. He was born in the United States around 1953 CE. He converted to Islam in 1983. Legenhausen is famous for his work on Islamic philosophy, ethics, and theology.
Major Works:
- Islam and Religious Pluralism
- Paper: The Relationship between Philosophy and Theology in the Postmodern Age
97. Mostafa Malekian (b. 1956)
Mostafa Malekian is an Iranian philosopher, writer, thinker, and editor. He was born in Shahreza, Iran, in 1956 CE. Malekian is famous for his work on comparative philosophy, particularly in the context of Islamic philosophy and Western thought. His contributions are in the fields of Islamic ethics, the philosophy of religion, and theology.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Mostafa Malekian’s work emphasizes the relationship between Islamic thought and Western philosophy. He is seeking to integrate the two traditions. He advocates for the reinterpretation of Islamic teachings in light of modern philosophical insights.
Major Works:
A Way to Freedom
98. Insha-Allah Rahmati (b. 1966)
Insha-Allah Rahmati is an Iranian philosopher, thinker, translator, researcher, and professor of philosophy at Islamic Azad University in Tehran. He was born in Malayer, Iran, on December 22, 1966. Rahmati is famous for his contributions to Islamic philosophy, logic, and metaphysics.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Insha-Allah Rahmati is mainly interested in Islamic philosophy, Ethics, philosophy of religion, and Traditionalist School (perennialism). His research explores the role of Islamic philosophy in addressing modern challenges. He is a proponent of the upholding of Islamic intellectual traditions while engaging with contemporary issues.
Major Works:
Rahmati has published various essays, theses, and other books.
- Knowledge and the Sacred
- Religion and Order of Nature
- The Garden of Truth
- Mind-body relation: a comparative study
99. Shabbir Akhtar (1960–2023)
Shabbir Akhtar was a British-Pakistani philosopher, writer, poet, researcher, and multilingual scholar. He was born in Pakistan, then moved to the UK and studied philosophy and religion there. Akhtar was famous for his work on Islamic philosophy, theology, and the philosophy of religion.
Key Ideas and Concepts: Shabbir Akhtar reflects a combination of Western philosophy and Islamic thought. He was interested mainly in Islamic theology, philosophy of religion, and interfaith dialogue. He explored the intersections between Islam and Western philosophical traditions.
Major Works:
Akhtar has written extensively
- The Quran and the Secular Mind: A Philosophy of Islam
- Be Careful with Muhammad
- The New Testament in Muslim Eyes: Paul’s Letter to the Galatians
- Islam as Political Religion: The Future of an Imperial Faith
Concluding Remarks
This list of Muslim philosophers is quite extensive but does not claim to be all-inclusive. It offers an overview of each philosopher, from early translations and interpretations of Greek, Roman, and Indian philosophy to contemporary engagements with modernity and postmodernity. Muslim philosophers have made considerable contributions to various fields of knowledge. Their works are still relevant for understanding contemporary issues and challenges facing the Muslim world and the world at large.
References:
- Wikipedia. List of Muslim philosophers
- Britannica. Islamic Philosophy
- History of Philosophy. Timeline of Philosophers – The Islamic World
- Islamic Philosophy Online. Philosophers
- Best Randoms. List of Muslim Philosophers
- Wikiwand. List of Muslim theologians
- Medium. Muslim Philosophers and Thinkers of the Modern Age
- Academic. List of Muslim philosophers
Websites:
Channels:
- Hamza Yusuf
- Faisal Warraich: Golden Age of Islam: Rise, Fall, and Rationality